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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



English Grammar 



FOR THE 



COMMON SCHOOL 



BY 

JONATHAN 'rIGDON, A.B. 

n 

Author of " English Grammar for Beginners," " Grammar of the English 
Sentence and Introduction to Composition," " Methods in Arith- 
metic," " Outlines in Psychology," etc.; and Professor of 
Philosophy, and Teacher of English Grammar and 
Criticism, in the Central Normal College 






( APR 801 896 ) 



DANVILLE, INDIANA 

INDIANA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1896 



* $ 

RIGDBN'S 

Grammar of the English Sentence and Introduction 
to Composition. 

English Grammar for Beginners. 

English Grammar for the Common School. 

Outlines in Grammar and Discussions of the Infinite 
Verbs. 

Analysis of the English Sentence with Diagrams. 

Methods in Arithmetic. 

Outlines in Psychology. 



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oXKo 



Copyright, 1891, 1896, by Jonathan Rigdon. 



*Zr^Qj\Arirw % 




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Norfoooti P*00 : 

J. S. Cushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 

Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 




PREFACE. 



Grammar is not the " science of language " ; it is but one 
of the many divisions of that great science. It is that division 
whose province is to set forth the principles governing the use 
of the * sentence. It is not a " language drill/' as this term 
has come to mean ; but, as a body of principles seen in their 
proper applications, it is to the use of language what a 
knowledge of Physiology is to the observance of the laws of 
Hygiene. But just as we should not neglect to observe the 
laws of health while we are studying the principles of Physi- 
ology, so the study of grammatical principles should be done 
in a manner that will impress the mind with the purity, the 
strength, and the beauty of speech. The illustrative sen- 
tences should therefore be gems of literary excellence, full of 
thought and beauty and inspiration. 

The author or the teacher should try, not so much " to make 
Grammar easy," by falsely showing it to require no thought, 
as to make it interesting, by helping the pupil to experience 
the fascination of its thought. And in teaching the application 
of principles to the construction of the sentence, the teacher 
should require incomplete sentences to be filled out, or entire 
sentences to be written, thereby necessitating discrimination 
and judgment on the part of the pupil. In this positive way 
practical Grammar should be taught, and not by exhibiting to 
the pupil "examples of false syntax/' which is like compelling 
a child to spend a few hours each day in dens of iniquity, in 
order that he may constantly behold what he is not to be and 
to do. 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

But the chief importance of Grammar is not as a means to 
the use of language ; it is to be prized most as a discipline for 
the mind. The educational value of any study is measured by 
the power it gives the student to form that kind of judgments 
he will be oftenest called upon to form in the actual business 
of life. Of all the studies below the college course, Gram- 
mar stands pre-eminently first in respect to educational value. 
Indeed, it is surpassed by nothing in the college course ; and 
if any study can claim to be its equal in this particular, that 
study is Political Economy, or Social Science in general. In 
each of these studies the reasoning is not simple and defi- 
nitely exact, as it is in mathematics, but is indefinite and 
complex, demanding just such grasp of facts, and such discrim- 
ination in weighing probabilities, as we are called upon to use 
scores of times every day, in the ordinary affairs of life. 

In accordance with these thoughts this book has been pre- 
pared. The author has not failed to take advantage of all the 
suggestions contained in other books ; but for the most part, 
this one is an exposition, by the scientific or inductive method, 
of the sentence, as we find it in the best English of to-day. 

Every teacher knows the value of reviews ; and reviews are 
nowhere needed more than in Grammar. Each part of speech 
has therefore been followed by a general summing-up, or out- 
line, for review. 

Teachers and advanced students desiring a more extended 
knowledge of technical Grammar will find much additional 
matter in the "Grammar of the English Sentence and 
Introduction to Composition " ; for those who care for a 
more elementary book, the author has written his " English 
Grammar for Beginners." 

JONATHAN RIGDON. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



(For more definite reference, see Index.) 

PAGE 

I. PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION 1 

Definitions of Terms 1 

Construction of Sentences 4 

Parts of Speech 6 

Verbs and Complements 8 

Phrases and Clauses . 10 

Classes of Words 12 

Properties of the Parts of Speech 14 

Capital Letters 15 

Punctuation 16 

II. PARTS OF SPEECH 18 

The Noun . 18 

Classes of Nouns 18 

Properties of Nouns .21 

Parsing of Nouns 34 

The Pronoun 37 

Classes of Pronouns 37 

Parsing of Pronouns — 

Personal 43 

Interrogative 46 

Belative ' 54 

Outline of Nouns and Pronouns 56 

Syntax of Nouns and Pronouns 58 

The Adjective 82 

Classes of Adjectives 84 

Comparison of Adjectives 88 

Parsing of Adjectives 91 

Outline of Adjectives 93 

Syntax of Adjectives 94 

v 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The Verb 98 

Classes of Verbs 98 

Properties of Verbs 113 

Synopsis of Verbs 123 

Parsing of Verbs 134 

Outline of Verbs 136 

Syntax of Verbs . 137 

The Adverb 140 

Classes of Adverbs 140 

Comparison of Adverbs 144 

Parsing of Adverbs 144 

Outline of Adverbs 145 

Syntax of Adverbs 146 

The Preposition 148 

Classes of Prepositions 148 

Parsing of Prepositions 150 

Outline of Prepositions 151 

Syntax of Prepositions . . 151 

The Conjunction 154 

Classes of Conjunctions : * . 154 

Parsing of Conjunctions 156 

Outline of Conjunctions 157 

Syntax of Conjunctions 157 

The Interjection 160 

III. INFINITE VERBS . . 162 

Infinitives 162 

Participles 164 

Parsing of Infinitives and Participles . . . . . 165 

Outline of Infinitives and Participles 167 

Syntax of Infinitives and Participles 170 

IV. ABEIDGMENT 171 

V. RULES OF SYNTAX . 175 

VI. SYNTAX OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 178 

VII. ANALYSIS 180 

Classification of Elements 180 

Classification of Sentences 184' 

Connectives 188 

Outline of Sentences 188 

Diagrams 190 

VIII. LETTER WRITING 206 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll 

PAGE 

IX. A GENEEAL REVIEW 215 

X. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR PARSING AND 

ANALYSIS 236 

XI. INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC 251 



INDEX 263 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE 



COMMON SCHOOL. 



-00XK0 



Grammar is at every step a thought study. 
Thought can be studied only through language. 
Grammar is that branch of language study which 
deals wholly with the sentence. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of 
sentences. 

2. A Sentence is an expression of a thought including a 
subject and predicate. 

3. Grammar is the science that treats of the principles 
of the sentence. 

4. English Grammar is the science that treats of the prin- 
ciples of the English sentence. 

5. Its use or end is to teach the art of speaking, writing, 
and interpreting the English sentence correctly. 

6. Importance of Interpretation. — This last use of Gram- 
mar, interpretation, is the most important, but the most 
neglected. This it is that makes the subject most difficult 
by constantly requiring the pupil to think, to go back of 
the words and phrases to search for their meanings ; but 
this it is also that most abundantly rewards our labors, for it 
accustoms us to careful, accurate thinking, which, although 

1 



'1 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

at first the most difficult work, will in the end become the 
most delightful. Much depends upon the text-book and 
much upon the teacher ; but no amount of systematic order 
in the one or ingenuity on the part of the other will com- 
pensate for lack of constant and diligent thought on the 
part of the pupil ; but he may be assured from the start 
that all his efforts will be most richly rewarded. (See 
article 42.) 

7. Importance of Speaking Correctly. — The Grammar of 
our language could be mastered in less than half the time 
if the pupil could be made to put the proper estimate on 
the importance of speaking it correctly. It is not at all 
uncommon for students to think that they may speak as 
carelessly as they please on the playground or in their 
homes, if they only observe their grammatical laws during, 
the recitation. This is very wrong. No one in this way 
can ever learn to speak well. It requires constant care 
and watchfulness. When we learn a grammatical prin- 
ciple and its application, we must forever after put it into 
practice. Let the pupil observe how the language of the 
best books and of the best speakers conforms to his prin- 
ciples of Grammar. Let him be always on the watch for 
his own errors, and never tolerate a form of expression 
which he has learned is wrong. In this way, but in no 
other, he will soon find himself gaining mastery in the use 
of language. Space has been given here to this sugges- 
tion, in the hope that the boy or girl who reads it will 
determine, at whatever cost of effort, to gain at least tol- 
erable proficiency in that art which is so incomparably 
superior to any or all other arts, the art of speech. Of all 
the fine arts it is the finest, and of all the useful arts it is 
the most useful. 

(a) — Correct writing necessarily accompanies correct speech. 



DEFINITIONS. 



8. Grammar, though strictly a science, may be regarded 
also as an art. 



9. Grammar 



f Explains the 



As a Science -j structure of \ Theory. 
[ the sentence. ' 

f Lays down 
As an Art \ rules for its \ Practice. 
[ correct use. 



10. Divisions of Grammar. — Since the sentence is made 
up of words which may have different grammatical forms, 
and be differently arranged with reference to one another, 
there arise two divisions of Grammar: Etymology and 
Syntax. 

(a) Orthography and prosody have commonly been named as divisions 
of Grammar, but a logical classification of language studies will show that 
they may be assigned to more appropriate places. 

(6) Thus orthography, together with orthoepy, forms the subject-matter 
of spelling, which is to be learned from the dictionary. Historical ety- 
mology, which treats of the derivation of words, is, like Grammar and 
Rhetoric, a division of the greatest of all language studies, Philology; 
while Prosody is a branch of Composition. 

(c) "The formerly current classification of the subjects of Grammar 
as fivefold, namely, orthography, orthoepy, etymology, syntax, and pros- 
ody, is heterogeneous and obsolescent. The first and last do not belong 
really to Grammar, though often for convenience are included in the text- 
books of Grammar; orthoepy is properly phonology or phonetics — an 
account of the system of sounds used by a language." — Prof W. D. 
Whitney, in Century Dictionary. 

11. It appears, then, that Grammar has but two divis- 
ions : Syntax and Grammatical Etymology. 

12. Syntax is that division of Grammar which treats of 
the construction of the sentence. It comprises synthesis 
and analysis. 

13. Synthesis is such a combination of parts as will form 
a sentence. 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



14. Analysis is such a separation of the sentence as will 
show the relation of its parts. 

15. Grammatical Etymology is that division of Grammar 
which treats of the classification, uses, and properties of 
words. 

THE CONSTKUOTION OP SENTENCES. 

16. Every thought implies two things : (1) a thing about 
which to think ; (2) some action of the mind concerning that 
thing. Every sentence, which is the expression of a thought, 
must, therefore, have the two corresponding parts : (1) a 
part to represent that about which we think, the subject ; 
(2) a part to represent that which is thought, the predicate. 

17. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or some 
expression so used. The predicate must always be a verb 
or contain one. It may consist of two parts : (1) an attri- 
bute belonging to the subject, called complement or attri- 
bute ; (2) a word to represent the mental act that joins the 
attribute to the subject, called the COPULA; as, "He is n 
farmer" " That man is a thief" " She is an elocutionist" 
" They are agreeable" Or both these parts may often be 
expressed by one word ; as, " He plows" " That man 
steals" " She reads" 

18. Sentences. 



SUBJECT. 

She 

She 

They 

That man 

That man 

The boy 

The little boy 

The little boy standing by the river 

The little boy standing by the 

river, having observed that his 

sister had slipped from the bank, 



PREDICATE. 

reads. 

is an elocutionist. 

are agreeable. 

steals. 

is a thief. 

ran. 

ran with all his might. 

ran with all his might. 

ran with all his might, to rescue 
her from the rushing waves that 
threatened to destroy her. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 5 

19. As may be seen from the above examples, a sentence 
may be very simple, containing only the subject and predi- 
cate, called principal elements; or it may be very complex, 
containing, besides the subject and predicate, many modi- 
fiers, or subordinate elements. 

20. The subject apart from its modifiers is called the 
simple subject; with all its modifiers, the complex subject. 
The predicate apart from its modifiers is called the simple 
predicate ; with all its modifiers, the complex predicate. 

21. Point out the subject and predicate, simple and com- 
plex, in each of the following sentences : — 

(1) The shepherd tends his flock. 

(2) Perseverance overcomes difficulties. 

(3) And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

(4) The little boat was sailing swiftly down the river. 

(5) fairest of creation, last and best 

Of all God's works. 

(6) Oh, how delightful it is to see the sun hiding behind the western 
hills. 

(7) God created the heavens and the earth. 

(8) The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man ; a faculty be- 
stowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excel- 
lent uses ; but, alas ! how often do we pervert it to the worst of purposes ! 

(9) The house stands on the hill. 

22. There are now more than one hundred and seventy- 
five thousand words in our language, but, according to the 
different uses they have in the sentence, they may for con- 
venience be grouped into a very few classes. 

For example, some are names; as, "shepherd," " flock," 
" God," and " earth," in (1) and (7) above. Some express 
action, being, or state of some subject ; as, " tends," 
"is," and "stands," in (1), (6), and (9). Some express 
quality; as, "solemn," "peculiar," and " beneficent," in 
(3) and (8). Some tell how, how much, and when; as, 
"swiftly," "how," and "often," in (4), (6), and (8). 



6 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Some are representatives of name words ; as, " his " 
and "it," in (1) and (6)* Others are used as connective 
or relation words; as, "and," "behind," "but," and 
"on," in (5), (6), (8), and (9). And still others are used 
merely as emotion words; as, "O," " Oh," and "alas," in 
(5), (6), (8). 

According to their uses here illustrated words are divided 
into eight classes, called 

PAETS OF SPEECH. 

(1) NOUN. 

23. A noun is the name of any object, material or imma- 
terial ; as, Socrates, Boston, boy, plow, mind, idea, sin, love. 

(a) The best test that can be given of a noun is, that it may be used 
as the subject, the object, or the complement in a sentence; as, James 
struck William. The lady is a musician. 

(3) PRONOUN. 

24. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; " She 
saw her brother sitting by me" " Thou art the man." 
" Who is the woman that told you ? " 

(a) A pronoun also may be used as the subject, object, or complement 
in a sentence ; as, " He saw me and thought that /was she.'' 1 

(3) ADJECTIVE. 

25. An adjective is a word used to limit a noun or pro- 
noun; as, " Wise men." "Beautiful women." " Obedient 
children." " Four apples." " That barn." " Me miser- 
able:' 

(a) An adjective may modify its noun directly as above, or it may be 
used to complete the predicate; as, "That girl is industrious.'' 1 "I am 
sick." When an adjective is thus used after a copulative verb to com- 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

plete the predicate, it is called a predicate adjective, and always limits the 
subject. 

(4) VERB. 

26. A verb is a word used to express action, being, or 
state; as, "The man whips his horse." "God is." "The 
house rests upon solid rock." 

(a) A verb makes, or helps to make, the predicate of every sentence. 

(5) ADVERB. 

27. An adverb is a word that usually modifies a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " Mr. Brown acted very 
rashly" " She is exceedingly careful." 

(6) PREPOSITION. 

28. A preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between its object and some other word ; as, " A man of little 
ability can accomplish much by giving close attention to 
his business." 

(7) CONJUNCTION. 

29. A conjunction is a word used to connect two sen- 
tences or two parts of a sentence; as, "Chicago and New 
York are large cities." " He went out of the house and 
into the cornfield." " Kate left, but Josephine remained." 
" He asked for bread because he was hungry." 

(8) INTERJECTION. 

30. An interjection is a word without grammatical 
construction, used to express some strong emotion ; as, Oh ! 
Alas ! Pshaw; ! 

EXPLETIVES. 

BemarTc. — Any word in our language may be put into one of these 
eight classes, but there are a few words that are often used merely to 
introduce a sentence, without any grammatical dependence upon any 



8 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

other word. Those most frequently so used are and, for, that, there ; as, 
"And it came to pass." " And I say unto you." u For him to act so is 
a disgrace to his parents." " There is none good but one." u And there 
was in their synagogue a man with an unclean spirit." "And there came 
a voice from heaven." " That he did the mischief is settled." " But I 
say unto you, that Elias is indeed come." Such words are called Intro- 
ductory Expletives. 

31. Name the part of speech to which each word in the 
folloiving sentences belongs : — 

(1) In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 

(2) The selfish dog in the manger kept away the hungry cow. 

(3) The wounded Sir Philip Sidney gave water to a dying soldier. 

(4) A miller and his son were driving their donkey to \ fair. 

(5) Crowds of men and women laughed, shouted, clapped their hands, 
and frightened the donkey. 

(6) what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practice to deceive ! 

32. Complements. 

(1) Children play. (5) Some men are agreeable. 

(2) Flowers bloom. (6) Smith is a detective. 

(3) God created the world. (7) She became ill. 

(4) Birds build nests. (8) George became a scholar. 

33. By comparing the first two sentences above with the 
last six, it will be observed that some verbs, like "play" 
and " bloom," are complete in themselves, while others, 
like "created," "build," u are," and "became," require the 
addition of other words, like "world," "nests," "agree- 
able," and " scholar," to complete their meaning. Verbs 
may, therefore, be divided into complete- and incomplete. 
Again, it may be seen that some incomplete verbs, like 
"created" and "build," require an object, a word that 
represents something entirely different from what is de- 
noted by the subject, to complete them ; while other verbs, 
like the last four, require an attribute, a word meaning the 



PARTS OF SPEECH.. 9 

same as the subject, or expressing some quality of the 
subject. 

(1) Verbs that represent action as affecting objects are 
called Transitive Verbs. 

(2) Verbs that represent action, being, or state as pertain- 
ing wholly to agents are called Intransitive Verbs. 

(3) Verbs that require attributes of the subject to complete 
them are called Copulative Verbs. 

(4) Verbs that do not require attributes of the subject to 
complete them are called Attributive Verbs. 

(5) Whatever completes an incomplete verb is called a 
Complement. 

(6) The object which completes a transitive verb is called 
an Objective Complement. 

(7) The attribute which completes a copulative verb is 
called an Attributive Complement. 

(a) In the above sentences, "play" and " bloom" are intransitive 
and attributive; "created" and "build" are transitive and attributive ; 
"are," "is," and "became" are intransitive and copulative, and in 
"She was considered honest," and "He was appointed captain," the 
verbs are transitive and copulative. 

34. In the following sentences tell whether the verbs are 

ATTRIBUTIVE or COPULATIVE, TRANSITIVE or INTRANSI- 
TIVE ; and name the hind of COMPLEMENT that follows each 
incomplete verb : — 

(1) Columbus discovered America. 

(2) God said, Let there be light, and there was light. 

(3) She thought I was mistaken. 

(4) Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 

(5) She was made secretary of the convention. 

(6) Slang never becomes a lady or gentlemam. 

(7) He was reported absent. 

(8) It is good for us to be here, 



10 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(9) Whatever is, is right. 

(10) He became President after he had served several terms in the 
Senate. 

35. Sentences. 

A Sentence is any expression of thought including a 
verb and its subject; as, " You are a musician." "Are 
you a musician?" "You are a musician!" "Be a 
musician." 

36. Classes of Sentences. 

(1) According to use — 

(a) Declarative. — One that asserts or denies; as, u He came." 

" He did not come." 
(6) Interrogative. — One that asks a question ; as, " Have you seen 

him to-day ?" 

(c) Exclamatory. — One used in exclamation; as, "How well she 

sings!" 

(d) Imperative. — One used to command or entreat; as, u Guard 

your tongue." 

(2) According to form or structure — 

(a) Simple. — One containing a single statement; as, "John is a 

farmer." 

(b) Compound. — One containing two or more statements of equal 

rank ; as, " John is a farmer, but his brother is a merchant." 
" Mary came, and I went to meet her." 

(c) Complex. — One some element of which is a sentence; as, 

"I saw him when he did it." "I believe he said it." 
" That he will try it is certain." "His objection was that 
the work was dangerous" "The man who is sick is my 
uncle." 

37. Phrases and Clauses. 

A Phrase is any group of words forming a modifier that is 
not a sentence ; as, — 

"The history of our country is full of thrilling events." "The men 
came with great clamor to drive the wolves away from the flock" 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

38. Classes of Phrases. 

(1) According to use — 

{a) Adjective. — The road through the valley (== valley road) is 
rough. All have the right to vote. 

(b) Adverbial. — He does his work with care (carefully). 

(c) Substantive. — To forgive is divine. He likes to be let alone. 

(2) According to basis — 

(a) Prepositional. — The city of Brooklyn is in the State of New 
' York. 

(b) Infinitive. — He came to learn. He asks permission to remain. 

(c) Participial. — The boy gazing so intently upon her is her brother. 

(3) According to structure — 

(a) Simple. — We left in the evening. They walked over the bridge. 
(6) Complex. — The kite flew over the tops of the trees. 
(c) Compound. — To direct well and to do well are different things. 
He came in the morning, at noon, and at night. 

39. A Clause is any group of words forming a sentence that 
is used as a modifier ; as, "He came when he was wanted" 
" She said that she was hungry P " The horse that died 
yesterday was worth five thousand dollars." 

40. Classes of Clauses. 

(1) According to use — 

(a) Adjective. — Here is the boy who is sick (= sick boy). 

(b) Adverbial. — He lies where he fell. 

(c) Substantive. — Those performing the office of a noun : 

He thinks that I am not honest. 
How he did it is a mystery. 
His motto is, Work all the time. 

(2) According to structure — 

(a) Simple. — That he was wrong is evident. 

(5) Complex. — That he was wrong when he said it is evident. 

(c) Compound. — That he was wrong and that he knew it is evident. 



Classes of Words. 



12 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

41. It may be seen from the following that all the parts 
of speech may be grouped under five 

- r (1) Nouns. 

(a) Substantives. < /ON ,-, 
v J I (2) Pronouns. 

(b) (3) Verbs {^Jite / Influitives - 
*■ ' \ Participles. 

J (4) Adjectives. 

(c) Modifiers, t (6) ^oerte. 

(d) Connective or -* ( (6) Preposition. 

Relation words, j \ (7) Conjunction. 

( (8) Interjections. 
[ (e) Independent words. | Ex pi eti ves. 

42. Let the teacher and pupil keep in mind that every 
sentence must have a subject and predicate, that these are 
the principal elements, the elements upon which all the 
others depend, and that the first thing to be done in ex- 
plaining a sentence is to point out its subject and predi- 
cate. Then all the modifiers of each should be named, 
and the pupil should tell whether each modifier is a word, 
a phrase, or a clause. He should also state, as far as may 
be thought practicable, the idea expressed by each element 
of the sentence. 

And even before the student attempts to dispose of a 
sentence, or any of its parts, the teacher should see that 
he understands its meaning as a whole, and is able to state 
it in his own language. The importance of this cannot 
be over-estimated, and it is entirely too much neglected 
by teachers of English Grammar. It is this very neglect 
manifested in teaching Grammar as if it were nothing but 
the mechanical parsing and analysis of sentences written 
only to be parsed and analyzed, and the memorizing of 
rules that are to the student only a meaningless mass of 
stuff, that has heaped upon this branch of study the dis- 
approbation that justly belongs to those who have abused it. 



PABTS OF SPEECH. 13 

The method of dealing with the sentence suggested 
above is not only the very best method of teaching techni- 
cal Grammar, but is unequalled as a means to ability in 
composition, facility in expression, and power in thought. 
So long as a student cannot grasp, and express in his own 
language, the thought of a sentence, he can spend his time 
much more profitably than in attempting to analyze or 
parse its words. 

43. Exercise. 

(I.) Name the subject and predicate, simple and complex, 
and describe the sentence. 

(II.) Name the parts of speech. 

(III.) Point out and classify the phrases and clauses. 

(1) Keep thy heart with all diligence. 

(2) Honor and shame from no condition rise. 

(3) In the morning sow thy seed; in the evening withhold not thy 
hand. 

(4) Cease to do evil ; learn to do well. 

(5) To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 

(6) Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 

(7) Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

(8) See that beautiful bird ! 

(9) Hear me, for I will speak. 

(10) The vine still clings to the mouldering wall ; 
And at every gust the dead leaves fall. 

(11) We should appreciate the privileges that we have. 

(12) what a mistake we make when we fail to improve our time ! 

(13) He wilkreturn to school when vacation is over. 

(14) Blessed is the man whose trust is in thee. 

(15) If justice direct you in the pursuit of gain, tranquillity will attend 
you in the enjoyment of it. 

(16) I wandered lonely as a cloud 

That floats on high o'er vales and hills, 
When all at once I saw a crowd, 

A host, of golden daffodils ; 
Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. 



14 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

PKOPEKTIES OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

44. Property is any modification of any part of speech. 
(a) It is sometimes called Grammatical Form or Modification. 

45. Thus number, a mode of distinguishing one from 
more than one, is a property of nouns and pronouns. 
(Book — books; I — we.) 

46. Tense, a mode of denoting time, is a property of the 
verb. (Walk — walked.) 

47. Comparison, a mode of denoting degrees of quality, 
is a property of adjectives and adverbs. (Long — longer 
— longest.) 

48. The following are all the properties of the parts of 
speech : — 

(1) Person •) 

(2) Number } Pro P erties of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

(3} Gfencler ~\ 

(i) Case f Pro P er ^ es °^ nouns and pronouns. 

(5) Voice \ 

(6) Mode > Properties of verbs. 

(7) Tense) 

(8) Comparison — A property of adjectives and adverbs. 

(a) The preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection have no 
grammatical properties. 

49. Inflection is any variation in form which a part of 
speech undergoes to denote grammatical property. It may 
be (1) by a change in the ending, (2) by different words, 
(3) by the addition of auxiliaries. 

(a) Sometimes a property is indicated by the position of a word in a 
sentence. 

50. Declension is inflection of nouns and pronouns. 

51. Comparison is inflection of adjectives and adverbs. 



CAPITALS. 15 

52. Inflection, Conjugation, or Synopsis is the inflection of 
verbs. 

53. Exercise. 

Tell the Part of Speech to which each word belongs, and 
name the properties that belong to each. 

(1) He might have secured friends by showing himself friendly. 

(2) Europe was at war during the greater part of the fourteenth cen- 
tury. 

(3) True politeness is to do and say the kindest thing in the kindest 
way. 

(4) Nothing but ruins now remains to mark the ancient greatness of 
Egypt. 

(5) If you had lived, I would have come one day, 
Perhaps through many a rough and stony way ; 
Come, just my head upon your breast to lay, 

To look into your eyes ; — with earnest brow 
I would have said, — 
" I wronged you once, that day, now so long past ; 
You looked for strength that should stand firm and fast ; 
I gave you weakness ; but am come at last 
With somewhat better" — but, alas, not now, 
Since you are dead. 
— " The Dead," by H. P. Kimball, in N. E. Magazine, December, 1890. 

CAPITALS. 

54. A Capital Letter should begin — 

(1) The first word of every sentence. 

(2) The first word of every line of poetry. 

(3) The first word of every direct quotation. 

(4) All proper nouns and proper adjectives. 

(5) Names of things personified. 

(6) Names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year ; 
but not of the seasons. 

(7) All words used as titles or particular names. 

(8) Names of the Supreme Being. 

(9) The pronoun I, the interjection O, and single letters forming 
abbreviations should be capitals. 



16 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

PUNCTUATION. 

55. Punctuation is the art of indicating the construction 
of the different parts of a sentence. 

56. A. Terminal Marks. 

The period 

The interrogation mark ? 

The exclamation mark ! 

57. The Period is used at the end of a declarative or 
an imperative sentence. 

(a) The period is used within a sentence after all abbreviations, after 
any expression used as a heading, and after figures or letters used to mark 
the sections or parts of a production. 

58. The Interrogation Mark is used at the end of an inter- 
rogative sentence. 

(a) The interrogation mark may be used after any word in the sen- 
tence, to denote uncertainty or to imply the opposite of what is expressed. 

59. The Exclamation Mark is used at the end of an 

exclamatory sentence. 

% {d) It is often used within a sentence, after an interjection or any other 
exclamatory word. 

60. B. Marks used within the Sentence. 

The comma , 

The semicolon ........; 

The colon . . . • : 

(a) Only those most frequently used and only the principal uses of 
each are named here. 

61. General Rule for the Comma. — Use a comma when the 
omission of it would render the construction of some part of 
the sentence obscure. 

1. To separate elements having the same construction — 

Intelligence, integrity, industry, are the elements of success. Our 
hopes and fears, pleasures and pains, make up the interesting side of life. 



PUNCTUATION. 17 

From night till morning, from morning till night, she whiled her miserable 
life away. When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a 
child, I thought as a child. 

Exception. — When two elements are closely connected by a conjunc- 
tion, no comma is needed ; as, "Learning expands and elevates the mind." 

2. To set off appositive, explanatory, parenthetical, or 
introductory words, phrases, or clauses — 

Dickens, the great novelist, is a teacher of human nature. The mind, 
which studies all things, should study itself most. He who can think, 
and all can. do that, need not be lonely. To speak plainly, I do not care 
to associate with him. 

3. To mark the omission of a verb — 

The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool, what he abounds in. 

62. General Rule for the Semicolon. — Use a semicolon 
between elements less closely connected than those separated 
by a comma. 

It is the first point of wisdom to avoid evil ; the second, to make it 
good. Improve every minute ; for time lost is lost forever. 

63. General Rule for the Colon. — The colon is used to 
precede a supplemental or explanatory remark. 

I admire the sublime passage : " God said let there be light, and there 
was light." 

64. Exercise in Punctuation and Capitalization. 

I. Observe closely the capitals and punctuation of every 
thing you read. 

II. Punctuate and capitalize correctly every sentence you 
write. 

65. Having made a general examination of the sentence 
as a whole, we are now ready for a more thorough investi- 
gation of each of the Parts of Speech that form it. The 
first in order is the If oun. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE NOUl^. 

66. A Noun is the name of an object ; as, Kate, James, 
Columbus, Brooklyn, water, farmer, angel, world, mind, 
flock, thought, love, brightness, Mary Jane Porter. 

(a) Any word, sign, phrase, or clause, may be used as a noun ; as, 
+, — , X, and -4- are mathematical signs. There was Tom with his " How 
do you do?" and " What can I do for you? 1 '' 

(&) Such expressions have the uses of nouns only so far as their rela- 
tion to other words is concerned ; they are rather things than names of 
things. So upon this ground there may be objection to calling them 
nouns, but there can be no objection to calling them substantives. 

(c) A Substantive is any word or combination of words that may 
stand as the subject of a verb. 

CLASSIFICATION OP NOUNS. 

67. An object may be spoken of in two ways: (1) It 
may be called by a name applicable not only to it, but also 
to any other object of its class ; as, boy, planet, city, river, 
people, state, — Common or Class Name. (2) It may be 
called by a name that distinguishes it from others of its 
class, to which this name is not applicable ; as, George, 
Mars, London, The Orinoco, English, Ohio, — Particular or 
Individual Name. 

68. This gives rise to two general classes of nouns, — 
Common and Proper. 

69. Definitions. — A Common Noun is any name given to 
an object to denote the class to which it belongs, without dis- 

18 



CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 19 

tinguishing it from others of its class ; as, hunter, woman, 
mountains, hook, 

70. A Proper Noun is any name that distinguishes its 
object from others of its class ; as, Daniel Boone, Queen 
Victoria, The Rockies, Webster's Dictionary, 

(a) It may readily be seen that a noun usually proper may become 
common, and that a noun usually common may become proper. 

We may say, (1) A proper noun becomes common when it ceases to 
distinguish its object from others of the same class; as, "The Coesars," 
"The Ciceros" "The Beethovens." Such expressions are the same as 
"The warriors,'''' "The orators," "The musicians.'''' (2) A common 
noun becomes proper when it is used to distinguish any particular object 
from others of the same class ; as, " Boatman, do not tarry." 

(b) A common noun has meaning and can be defined. A proper noun 
is merely a symbol, or sign, of an object ; it is without meaning and can- 
not therefore be defined. At first a proper noun has a meaning on 
account of which it is selected to represent its object ; but the significa- 
tion is soon lost. 

(c) Our language has about 30,000 common nouns, and the number 
may be increased as new classes of objects are formed. We have almost 
an unlimited number of proper nouns. There are more than 70,000 
names of places alone. 

(d) Two or more words are often used to form one name ; as, New 
York City, Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, Dr. John Clark Ridpath. 
Parse such combinations as single nouns. 

71. Sub-classes. — The Proper Noun has no sub-classes. 
The Common Noun may, for convenience, be divided into 
four sub-classes, Collective, Abstract, Verbal, and Class. 

72. Definitions. — A Collective Noun is one whose singular 
form may represent a group of objects; as, flock, herd, 
swarm. 

(a) A collective noun always represents a group of animate objects. 
Such nouns as pile, heap, and bunch, although they suggest collections of 
objects, are not collective. 

(p) A collective noun may refer to its individuals in two ways : (1) As 
acting as one unit, one whole. (2) As acting singly, separately, inde- 
pendently. 



20 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

73. In the first of these uses, the collective noun is 
singular, and of the neuter gender; it would therefore 
require a singular verb, and a singular, neuter pronoun; 
as, " Your club beats ours every time it tries." 

74. In the second use, the gender of the noun is deter- 
mined by the sex of the objects represented, and the verb 
and pronoun referring to it should be plural; as, "Your 
club have silver buckles on their caps." This is a very 
important distinction, and the student must thoroughly 
master it before he can speak with assurance. 

75. When a collective noun is pluralized, it usually be- 
comes a class noun of the neuter gender ; as, " There were 
seven or eight swarms" Here the individuals are lost 
sight of. But a collective noun may be used in the plural 
number so as to refer to the individuals ; as, " All day the 
regiments were calling on their commander." 

76. An Abstract Noun is the name of any quality conceived 
of by the mind apart from the object to which it belongs ; as, 
softness, drunkenness, honesty. 

(a) The following are a few of our abstract nouns : death, hope, youth, 
goodness, happiness, beauty, sorrow, cold, whiteness, softness, darkness, 
motion, flight, silence, existence, height, depth, growth, custom, honor, 
economy, indolence, grandeur, honesty, deception, drunkenness, poverty, 
ambition, power. 

(6) Most abstract nouns readily become concrete by being used to 
represent a thing having attributes ; as, " She is a beauty,' 1 '' " Death comes 
to us all alike." 

77. A Verbal Noun is the name of an action, being, or 
state ; as, " The rushing of the waves." "Existing is less to 
be dreaded than death." " Sound sleep is very refreshing." 

(a) All verbal nouns may be considered abstract. 

78. Class Nouns are all those not included in the other 
divisions ; as, girl, man, house, knife. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 21 



PKOPEKTIES OF NOUNS. 

79. To nouns belong four properties : Person, Number, 
Gender, Case. 

PERSON. 

80. Person is that property of the noun which indicates 
whether it represents the speaker, the person spoken to, or 
the person or thing spoken of. 

81. Hence there are three persons : the First, which 
denotes the speaker; the Second, the person spoken to; 
and the Third, the person or thing spoken of. 

82. Person in nouns is indicated by their use and not 
by a change in form. "I, Henry Anderson, am guilty." 
"Henry Anderson, you are a thief." "Henry Anderson 
stole the horse." 

(a) The first and the second persons belong to names of persons only, 
or of things personified. 

(6) Most nouns are of the third person. 

(c) A noun of the first person is found in no other construction than 
that of apposition with a pronoun of the first person ; and in the nomina- 
tive absolute by subscription. 

(d) A noun of the second person can have but two constructions: 
apposition with a pronoun of the second person, and nominative absolute 
by direct address. 

NUMBER. 

83. Number is that property used to show whether the 
noun represents one object or more than one. 

84. There are two numbers : the Singular, denoting one, 
as box, child, star ; and the Plural, denoting more than one, 
as boxes, children, stars. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAIi. 

85. Nouns form their plurals either by inflection or by a 
radical change — 



22 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

1. By Inflection. 

86. General Rule. — Most nouns form their plurals by 
suffixing s, or (where euphony demands it) es : book, books ; 
pin, pins ; church, churches ; bench, benches, 

87. The following classes of nouns generally add es for 
plural : — 

(a) Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some nouns in o, 
preceded by a consonant: trench, trenches ; miss, misses; blush, blushes; 
tax, taxes; topaz, topazes; motto, mottoes. 

(b) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, add es after changing 
y into i: glory, glories; story, stories ; lady, ladies. 

In Old English we find such words written glorie, storie, ladle, with s 
suffixed for the plurals. Hence, when we say, "Change y into ie," we 
mean that ie has been changed into y. 

(c) A few nouns ending in / or fe form their plurals by adding es, 
after / or fe has been changed into v : thief, thieves ; wife, wives ; life, 
lives ; vjolf, wolves. 

2. By Radical Change. 

88. A few nouns form their plurals by radical change ; 
that is, by a modification of the vowel sound of the singu- 
lar : man, men ; woman, women ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; 
mouse, mice ; louse, lice. 

PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 

89. Singular and Plural the Same. 

(a) A few nonns have the same form for the plural as for the singular : 
sheep, deer, grouse, series, salmon, heathen. 

(b) The number of such a noun must be determined from some other 
part of the sentence ; thus, " The sheep was in the garden." " The sheep 
were in the garden." " I bought one sheep." u I bought five sheep." 

90. Double Plurals. 

1. Some nouns have double plurals, —one English and 
one foreign, or two English plurals, — each having a pecul- 
iar signification : - — 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 



23 



SINGULAR. 

Brother, 

Cow, 

Die, 

Fish, 

Genius, 

Index, 

Medium, 

Penny, 

Shot, 

Staff, 



FIRST PLURAL. 

Brothers (by birth), 
Cows (individuals), 
Dies (for stamping) , 
Fishes (individuals), 
Geniuses (men), 
Indexes (of books), 
Mediums (persons), 
Pennies (by number), 
Shots (discharges), 
Staffs (military), 



SECOND PLURAL. 

Brethren (community). 
Kine (a herd). 
Dice (for gaming). 
Fish (in aggregate). 
Genii (spirits). 
Indices (in algebra). 
Media (things). 
Pence (by value) . 
Shot (in aggregate). 
Staves (sticks). 



2. Another class of nouns from foreign languages have 
double plurals with the same meanings : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




English. 


Foreign. 


Bandit (Italian), 


Bandits, 


Banditti. 


Cherub (Hebrew), 


Cherubs, 


Cherubim. 


Dogma (Greek), 


Dogmas, 


Dogmata. 


Formula (Latin), 


Formulas, 


Formula. 



(a) Except in technical or scientific language the English plurals are 
generally to be preferred. 

91. Plurals only. 

Some nouns are found only in the plural : — 

annals entrails scissors 

antipodes nuptials shears 

breeches pantaloons tongs 

drawers pincers victuals 

dregs . scales vitals. 

92. Plurals as Singulars. 

Another class of nouns have the plural form with the 
singular signification; as, means, molasses, news, odds, pains, 
riches, tidings, amends, gallows, thanks, etc. 

Also, politics, ethics, optics, mathematics, physics, and 
some others represent Greek plurals, but are regarded as 



24 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAK. 

singular. Thus, " Mathematics is (not are) the science of 
quantity " ; " Ethics is (not are) the science of duty." 

93. Singulars only. 

Many abstract nouns have no plurals ; as, decorum, harsh- 
ness, meekness, prudence, tenacity, etc. 

94. Plural of Proper Nouns. 

Proper nouns generally form their plurals by adding .9 
or es. But as to those ending in y, usage is unsettled; 
some good writers add s, others drop y and add ies ; as, 
Mary, Marys or Maries ; Story, Story s or Stories. 

95. The Plurals of Letters, Marks, Figures, and Signs are 
formed by adding the apostrophe and s ('$) ; as, " You must 
dot your i's and cross your £'s." " We prove addition by 
casting out the 9's." "At the bottom of the page were 
placed *'s, — 's, +'s, and n's." 

96. The Plural of Compound Words is generally formed 
by pluralizing that part of the word which is described 
by the rest; as, ox-carts, brothers-in-law, billet-doux, courts- 
martial, aids-de-camp, oupfuls, wagon-loads, commanders-in- 
chief. 

A few compound words pluralize both parts : men-ser- 
vants, knights-templars (or knights-templar^). 

97. Plural of Proper Names preceded by titles is formed 
by pluralizing either the name or the title, but never both. 

98. Rules. 

I. If the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the 
name is always pluralized : " The Mrs. Browns." " The 
two Mrs. Barlows." " The two Miss Scotts had been gath- 
ering flowers." — Irving. 

II. The title should always be pluralized when it is Mister, 
Miss, Doctor, Professor, etc., not preceded by a numeral : 
" The Messrs. Johnson." " The Misses Dill." " The Drs. 
Bank." 



GENDER. 25 

(a) On this point usage is somewhat unsettled. In speaking of two or 
more single ladies of the same name, many good writers pluralize the 
title, many the name, and some both the title and the name. Perhaps 
most grammarians prefer to pluralize the name, while in polite literature 
we most commonly find the title made plural. In this Case, as in all 
others, usage, and not the grammarians, will prevail ; and finally, I 
believe, it will become the universal custom to pluralize only the titles of 
such terms. 

(b) Grammarians tell us that "the true law of the language requires 
that the s be affixed to the noun and not to the title " ; but the first and 
greatest of all demands upon language is that it express clearly the thought 
intended. Now if we say, "I saw the Miss Banks," it cannot be deter- 
mined whether we mean one lady named " Banks " or two named "Bank." 
"I called at the office of Dr. Motts," would probably imply one doctor 
named " Motts," but there are really two named " Mott." But if we say, 
"I saw the Misses Bank," and " I called at the office of Drs. Mott," there 
is no possibility of ambiguity. Then the law next in importance, that of 
analogy, would require that Mister, Professor, and similar titles should 
be pluralized, and not the name. 

GENDEK. 

99o Gender is that property which is used to denote the 
sex of the object named. 

100. Although there are but two sexes, the noun has four 
genders : masculine, feminine, neuter, and common. 

101. A Noun of the Masculine Gender represents a male 
object ; as, boy, uncle, bachelor, Joseph. 

102. A Noun of the Feminine Gender represents a female 
object ; as, girl, aunt, maid, Josephine. 

103. A Noun of the Neuter Gender represents an object 
which has no sex ; as, book, stump, table, snow. 

104. A Noun of the Common Gender represents either an 
object whose sex is unknown, or a number of objects, some 
males and some females ; as, child, parent, persons, children. 

(a) Some grammarians reject "common gender" as implying an ab- 
surdity, since there can be no such thing as an object of " common sex." 
The confusion arises from confounding "gender" and "sex." 



26 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(6) Neuter Gender has been objected to on the same ground, that since 
the object represented has no sex, the noun therefore has no gender, but 
this is the same confounding of gender and sex. When a noun tells us 
anything, no matter what, concerning the sex of its object, the property 
by which it does it is gender. 

(c) We may avoid all difficulty by keeping in mind that we parse 
nouns, not objects. 

105. Nouns distinguish the sex of the objects which they 
represent in three ways : ■ — 

(1) BY DIFFERENT WORDS. 

Mas. Fern. Mas. Fern. 

Boy, Girl. Lad, Lass. 

Brother, Sister. Man, Woman. 

Father, Mother. Son, Daughter. 

Gander, Goose. Uncle, Aunt. 

(2) BY DIFFERENT TERMINATIONS. 

Mas. Fern. Mas. Fern. 

Actor, Actress. Enchanter, Enchantress. 

Baron, Baroness. Lion, Lioness. 

(a) Most words of this class are appellations of office, occupation, or 
rank, and the feminine generally ends in ess or trix. 

(b) There are not now so many feminines in es as there were in 
earlier stages of our language. At present the best usage regards such 
terms as doctor, author, writer, engraver, as applicable both to men and 
to women. 

(3) BY PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

He-bear, She-bear. 

Man-servant, Maid-servant. 

f Miss Jones, 
Mr. Jones, \ Mrs. Jones. 

106. Neuter If ouns are Masculine or Feminine when per- 
sonified ; as, " The Sun filled the earth with his glory." 
" There lay the city in all her beauty." " The fairy Moon, 
queen of the night, dispenses her silver beams." " The 
mighty Sun, king of the heavens, drives his chariot through 
the sky." 



CASE. 27 



CASE. 

107. Case is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
indicates, or is indicated by, its construction or use. 

(1) John struck James. (2) James struck John. (3) John, you 
are surely mistaken. In each of the above sentences the case of u John 1 " 1 
is indicated by its use, while in the following sentence the use of the pro- 
noun " him " is indicated by its case. (1) Him followed his next mate. 

(a) The case of a noun is sometimes determined by its form, but in 
most cases 'by its use or relative position in the sentence. 

108. There are three cases : Nominative, Possessive, and 
Objective. 

109. Declension of Nouns. 

Singular. Plural. 

Worn. — boy boys. 

Poss. — boy's boys'. 

Obj. — boy boys. 

(a) It will be observed from the above that English nouns have but 
little variation in form to distinguish their cases. Only the possessive can 
be known by its form. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

110. Rule. —-A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a 
finite verb is in the nominative case. 

111. The Nominative Case has two divisions : nominative 
dependent and nominative independent or absolute. 

112. Dependent Constructions. 

(1) The subject of a finite verb ; as, Grod loves the world. 

(2) The complement of a copulative verb ; as, That man 
is a farmer. 

(a) This does not apply to the complement of a participle whose sub- 
ject is nominative absolute, or to the complement of an infinitive whose 
subject is objective; as, "Smith being a merchant, we employed him." 
" We want Smith to be a teacher" Here merchant is nominative absolute, 
and teacher is objective, each agreeing in case with the subject of the copula 
it completes. 



28 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of a 
copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. 

Exception. — When the subject of a copulative participle is possessive, 
the complement is nominative. 

(3) In apposition ; as, Campbell, the lawyer, is sick. 

113. Apposition is that peculiar relation one noun or pro- 
noun bears to another, when two or more denoting the same 
person or thing are, without a connecting element, put in the 
same case. Martin, the detective, caught the robbers. We 
saw Johnson, the surgeon. 

(a) A noun in any case may have a noun in apposition with it. 

(b) The appositive term is the one which explains the other. 

Rule. — A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the same 
case as the noun or pronoun which it explains. 

114. Independent or Absolute Constructions. 
A noun is in the nominative absolute case. 

(1) By direct address : William, come here. 

(2) By exclamation : Groodness ! 

(3) By pleonasm (the use of a noun before a sentence 

referring to it) : Out fathers, where are they? 

(4) By inscription (including all subscriptions and super- 

scriptions) : Bascom's Ethics. 

(5) With (subject of) a participle : The train having 

left us, we had to walk. 

(6) In apposition : Wilson, the merchant, having overbid 

us, we failed to get the horse. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

115. The Possessive Case is used to denote the owner of 
an object, as " Brown's corn " ; the author, as " Blair's 
Rhetoric " ; the hind, as "Men's clothing " ; the location, as 



CASE. 29 

" Pennsylvania's coal-beds " ; the origin, as " The sun's 
rays." 

116. The Possessive Case has two constructions or uses : 
(1) The ordinary use, to limit a noun of different significa- 
tion ; as, Mary's bonnet, PauVs pony, John's book, Brown's 
philosophy ; (2) the occasional use, to limit a noun of the 
same signification (apposition) ; as, Her Majesty, Queen 
Victoria's government. 

REMARKS ON THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

117. Rules for forming the Possessive. 

(1) Singular nouns and plurals not ending in s form their 
possessive by annexing the 's to the nominative ; as, " The 
child's book," "The man's hat," " The children's books," 
" The men's hats." 

(a) The 's is a contraction of the old English genitive ending es or 
is, — " In widowes habite " ; " The Kingis crowne." — Chaucer. 

(2) Plural nouns ending in s form their possessive by 
annexing only the apostrophe ; as, " Boys' sports," " Birds' 
wings," "Banks' charters." 

(a) For euphony the possessive is sometimes omitted from singular 
nouns that end with an s-sound; as, '•'•Xerxes' army," "Moses' law," 
" Socrates' 1 philosophy," " Demosthenes' orations" ; but it is better in most 
cases to annex the s also; as, " Dennis's Works." — Pope. "Louis's 
reign." — Macaulay. "Charles's affairs." — Prescott. The best usage 
sanctions the forms Mrs. Hemans's, Mr. Banks's, James's, witnesses' s, etc. 
Without the s there would be no distinction, in spoken language, between 
Mr. Bank's and Mr. Banks', Miss Round's and Miss Rounds'. The s 
should always be used in spoken language and in prose unless it brings 
together too many hissing sounds, and then perhaps the possession may 
be much more elegantly expressed by using of before the objective ; as, 
"The army of Xerxes," "The law of Moses," "The philosophy of Soc- 
rates," "The orations of Demosthenes." 

(5) The expressions, "For Jesus' sake," "For goodness' sake," "For 
conscience' sake," are idiomatic exceptions to the first rule. 



80 COMMON SCHOOL GKAMMAE. 

(c) The possessive case of such words as deer and sheep is formed by 
annexing to the nominative 's for the singular, and s' for the plural. 

(d) When a pair or series of nouns implying common possession are 
used, the possessive sign is annexed only to the one immediately preced- 
ing the name limited; as, " Wade & Cash's furniture store," "Reed & 
Kellogg'' s Grammar is made by Clark & Maynard's Publishing House," 
" Lee & Shepherd's shoe-store," etc. 

(e) When a pair or series of nouns not implying common possession 
are used, the sign is annexed to each, and the name limited by the last 
possessive is understood before each of the others ; as, "Day's and Fow- 
ler's Logic" (not Logics, unless each is the author of two or more works 
on that subject) ; " Swinton's and McGuffey's Headers " = Swinton's Read- 
ers and McGuffey's Readers. 

(/) In compound terms the possessive sign is annexed to the last ; as, 
" The court-martial 's decisions," " The courts-martial' s decisions." (Bet- 
ter, "Decisions of the courts- martial.") 

(g) When a noun in the possessive is limited by a noun in apposition 
with it, by a descriptive phrase, or by a pronominal adjective, the sign is 
annexed to the term immediately preceding the noun limited; as, "The 
emperor Napoleon's grave," " The secretary of the Navy's report," " What 
I do is no one else's business." When a proper noun is explained by a 
common noun in apposition with it, and when the limited noun is omitted, 
the possessive sign may be annexed to either the common or the proper 
noun, but never to both; as, "We stopped at Acton's, the jeweller," or 
" We stopped at Acton, the jeweller's." 

Qi) The subject of a participle is usually in the possessive case ; as, 
"The writer's being a scholar is not doubted," "No one ever heard of 
that man's running for office." (See Rule III.) 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

118. Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of an 
active transitive verb is in the objective case. 

Examples. — God made the world. 
Henry buys cattle. 
The men will cut the grass. 

(a) A passive verb takes no object after it ; its subject is its object. 

119. Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
preposition is in the objective case. 



CASE. 31 

Examples. — The character of any people is revealed in the nature of 
their literature. 
He went from London to Paris. 

120. Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of 
an infinitive is in the objective case, when it is not also the 
subject of the finite verb on which the infinitive depends. 

Examples. — She wanted John and me to leave. 

We desired her and her brother to help us. 
We heard him say it. 

(a) It destroys the meaning of the sentence to regard such nouns and 
pronouns as the object of the preceding transitive verb. 

121. Rule. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement 
of a copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. (See 
exception.) 

(a) Only when the copula is an infinitive having its subject in the 
objective, the rule applies to the objective case. 

Examples in the objective. — He expected me to be a preacher. 

They wanted John to become a mason. 

We thought Jane to be you. 

(6) The transitive verb and the preposition are the only parts of speech 
that govern objects. The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition is 
always a noun or a pronoun, or some expression so used. 

122. Objective Constructions. 

(1) The object of a transitive verb ; as, " The man struck 

the dog." 

(2) The object of a preposition ; as, " He set the bucket 

under the tabled 

(3) The subject of an infinitive; as, "We want the chil- 

dren to go with us." 

(4) The complement of an infinitive copula whose subject is 

objective ; as, " All his friends desired him to be a 
lawyer." 

(5) In apposition ; as, u I saw Brown, the banker" 

(6) By pleonasm; as, " Consider the lilies, how they grow." 



32 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

123. Indirect Object. 

Certain verbs are followed by two objectives differing 
in signification ; as, " She gave [to] the boy a book" 
One is said to be the direct and the other the indirect 
object of the verb. This indirect object had in earlier Eng- 
lish, and does yet have in many languages, a distinct form 
called the dative (from Lat. dare, to give) case, because 
it usually follows verbs of giving. Hence it is some- 
times called the dative objective, and the direct object the 
accusative objective. But rather than confuse the student 
of English with a division of the objective case while the 
English sentence shows him no basis for such a division, 
it seems to me preferable to parse these indirect objects as 
the object of some preposition, usually to or for, always 
clearly implied and sometimes expressed. When he comes 
to the study of Comparative Qrammar, he may have a sep- 
arate case for to and for, and also one for in and with ; but 
in our language the object of a preposition, whether expressed 
or understood, is in the objective case. Give him your pen- 
cil = Give your pencil to him. She made the girl a dress 
= She made a dress for the girl. I asked the boy his 
name = I asked the boy for his name, or I asked of the boy 
his name. I sent my friend a present = I sent a present to 
my friend. 

124. Objective by Enallage. 

The subject of a participle is usually in the possessive 
case, but by a figure of speech called enallage it is often 
put in the objective. But this construction should not be 
encouraged, since it is liable to make the sentence ambigu- 
ous in meaning. 

(1) The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

(2) No one ever heard of that man running for office. 

(3) Brown being a politician prevented his election. 



CASE. 33 

(1) The writer's being a scholar is not doubted. 

(2) No one ever heard of that mart's running for office. 

(3) Brown's being a politician prevented his election. 

(a) Point out the difference in meaning between the first three and the 
last three. 

125. Object of Intransitive Verbs. 

A few intransitive verbs are sometimes said to govern 
objects, but they can never do so without first becoming 
transitive. 

126. Two Objects. 

It is impossible for any verb to govern two objects not 
joined by a conjunction. 

(a) Verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, are often fol- 
lowed by two objectives, but one of them is governed by a preposition 
understood. 

(b) In some instances a transitive verb is used so as to give to its 
object an additional name which is also objective — not the object of the 
verb, but in apposition with the object; as, u Thy saints proclaim thee 
king,' 1 '' "And God called the firmament heaven,'''' " Make yourself master 
of your profession," " And Simon he surnamed Peter.' 1 '' 

127. Object of a Passive Verb. 

A verb in the passive voice cannot govern an object, for 
by definition its subject represents the receiver of the 
action. 

(a) If the verbs in' the sentences just quoted be changed to the passive 
voice, the objects, "thee," "firmament," "yourself,' 1 '' and "Simon," will 
become the subjects, and the appositives, "king," "heaven," "master," 
"Peter," will become the complements of the passive verbs; as, "The 
firmament was called heaven," " Simon was surnamed Peter," etc. 

(b) When such sentences as, "He gave [to] me a dollar," "They 
allowed [to] the senator his seat," " She showed [to] me the very letter," 
are changed to the passive form, the objects of the active verbs should be 
made the subjects of the passive ; then what have been called the indirect 
objects will still be governed by their prepositions; as, "A dollar was 
given to me," "His seat was allowed to the senator," "The very letter 



34 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

was shown to me." But good speakers and writers often make the indi- 
rect objects the subject of the passive ; as, "I was given a dollar," "The 
senator was allowed his seat," " I was shown the very letter." Then it 
is often difficult, sometimes impossible, to find a preposition to govern the 
noun which follows the verb. In such cases the noun is idiomatically 
objective, or, in other words, it is objective without grammatical construc- 
tion, but is not the object of the passive verb. 



PAESING. 

128. Abridged Model for All the Parts of Speech. 

(1) Species. (3) Construction. 

(2) Class. (4) Rule. 

(1) 0, how well Mattie and Susan play upon their new 
instruments. 

u 0" is an interjection ; it has no grammatical construction, E. XVII. 

" Well" adv. of manner, and lim. "play," K. XL 

"Mattie," n., prop., subj. of "play" R. I. 

'''•And" conj., coor., and joins " Mattie" and " Susan," R. XII. 

"Play" v., int., 3, plu., to agree with its subj. "Mattie" and 

" Susan," R. XV. 
" Upon," prep., simp., shows the relation between "instruments" 

and "play; 1 R. XIIL 
" Their" pro., per., lim. " instruments," R. VIII. 
"New" adj., des., and lim. " instruments," R. X. 

129. Parsing of the Noun. 

{a) The teacher will find no better place to teach neatness and care- 
fulness in composition, and accuracy in oral expression, than in Gram 
matical Parsing and Analysis. The parsing of the simplest words may be 
given orally, but most of it should be written in ink, correctly punctuated 
and capitalizede 

130. Model for the Noun. 

(1) Species. (4) Person. (7) Case, 

(2) Class. (5) Number. (8) Construction. 

(3) Sub-class, (6) Gender. (9; Rule 



PARSING. 35 

(1) Wise men never waste time. 

"Men" n., com., class, 3, plu., mas., nom., subj. of "waste," R. I. 
" Time" n., com., class, 3, sing., neut., obj., obj. of "waste" R. IV. 

(2) O John, did you want the children to leave in the 

night ? 

"John" 'n., prop., 2, sing., mas., nom. abs. by direct address, R. DC 
" Children" n., c, class, 3, plu., com., obj., subj. of "to leave" R. II. 
"Night," n., com., class, 3, sing., neut, obj., obj. of "in" R. V. 

131. Exercises for Parsing. 

A, 1. The Lord is our Grod. 2. The man lived alone 
on the bank of the river. 3. My father sent John to school. 
4. Most men admire Milton, the great poet. 5, Winter 
coming on, the troops were disbanded. 6. The storm lasted 
three hours. 7. The Constitution, it must be preserved. 
8. The world is but a stage, and all the men and women 
merely players. 9. King Agrippa, believest thou the 
prophets ? 10. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me 
your ears. 

B. 1. Glorious New England ! around thy hills and mountains cling 
like gathering mists the mighty memories of the Revolution. 

2. See truth, love, and mercy in triumph descending, 

And nature, all glowing, in Eden's first bloom ! 
On the cold cheek of Death smiles and roses are blending, 
And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb. 

3. A chieftain to the Highlands bound, 

Cries, "Boatman, do not tarry." 

4. One moment I looked from the hill's gentle slope, — 

All hushed was the billows' commotion, — 
And methought that the light-house looked lovely as hope — 
That star on life's tremulous ocean. — ■ Moore. 

5. Land of the beautiful and brave, 

The freeman's home, the martyr's grave, 
The nursery of giant men, 
Whose deeds are linked with every glen ! 
My own green land forever ! — Whittien 



36 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

132. Topics for Recitation on the If oun. 

Explain fully, illustrate, and give authority on each of the 
following : — 

1. Common nouns become proper. 2. Proper nouns become common. 
3. Formation of plurals in all the different ways. 4. Gender of collective 
nouns. 5. Person of a predicate noun. 6. Apposition. 7. Pleonasm. 
8. Absolute with a participle. 9„ Sign of possessive, when omitted. 
10. Possessive formed in what ways, singular and plural ? 11. Objective 
without a governing word. 12. Subject of an infinitive is objective when ? 
13. Subject of infinitive is nominative when ? 14. Subject of finite verb 
in what case ? 15, Subject of a participle in what case ? 16. Comple- 
ment of a copulative verb in what case ? 17. Indirect object. 18. Verbs 
that govern two objects. 19. Passive voice followed by an object. 

(a) The teacher should require the pupils to recite upon each of the 
parts of speech from a similar list of topics. This will necessitate some 
reference to their grammars. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 37 



THE PRONOUN. 

133. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; a?, 
" The man told me that his wife left her pen in my book." 
"Who took the money?" "The man that told you is a 
detective." 

CLASSES OF PKONOUNS. 

134. Pronouns have three principal uses : — 

135. (1) To avoid tiresome and disagreeable repetitions 
of nouns ; as, — 

" Alexander told Elizabeth that she might write her name in her book 
with his pen," instead of, " Alexander told Elizabeth that Elizabeth might 
write Elizabeth's name in Elizabeth's book with Alexander's pen." 

136. These are called Personal Pronouns. 

137. (2) To ask a question ; as, — 

" Who came ? " " What can she do ? " 

138. These are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

139. (3) To represent a preceding noun and join to it a 
limiting clause ; as, — 

"The man, who was very anxious to leave, immediately excused him- 
self." "The beautiful vase, which was a present from my mother, was 
broken by the children." " This is the dog that worried the cat." 

140. These are called Relative, or Conjunctive, Pronouns. 



38 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

141. Definitions. 

(1) A Personal Pronoun is one that has a distinct form 
for each grammatical person. 

Thus, /or we is always first person; thou, you, or ye is always second 
person; he, she, or it is always third person. 

(2) An Interrogative Pronoun is one that may be the inter- 
rogative word in an interrogative sentence ; as, — 

" Who are you ? " " What are you ? " 

(3) A Relative, or Conjunctive, Pronoun is one that joins to 
its antecedent a limiting clause ; as, — 

" The work, which must be completed immediately, has been on hand 
a long time." " The horse that died was a good one." 

142. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the substantive for 
which the pronoun is used. 

143. It is usually a noun, but may sometimes be a phrase 
or a clause ; as, " John lost his pencil." " To pay the debt, 
which is by far the easiest way out of the difficulty, will 
require all his efforts." " That the clerk was dishonest, 
which has long been believed, has now been proven." " He 
has given up his course of study, and now he regrets itP 

(a) The antecedent of a relative is sometimes another pronoun ; as, 
" Who that is strictly honest could make such a statement ? " " He who is 
dishonest suspects every one else." 

(b) Personal and relative pronouns follow their antecedents in sen- 
tences not inverted ; but sometimes in poetry they come before their 
antecedents ; as, — 

' ' Can storied urn or animated bust 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ?" 

(c) In thought, a pronoun represents its antecedent with all its modi- 
fiers ; as, " I saw the most beautiful residence in the city, and saw it burn." 
But for convenience in parsing, only the noun may be named as the ante- 
cedent. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 39 

(d) The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun follows it, and is there- 
fore sometimes called the subsequent. Here the pronoun and the subse- 
quent are in different sentences ; as, " Who wrote the Iliad ?." " Homer 
wrote the Iliad.' ' 

Rule. — A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

144. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form shows whether 
it is of the first, second, or third person. 

145. There are six personal pronouns : I for the first 
person; thou or you for the second; and he, she, or it for 
the third. 

(a) The above definition suggests why the personal pronoun is so 
called. 

(b) You was originally only plural, and still requires a plural verb ; but 
it should now be regarded as singular or plural, according as it represents 
one or more than one. 

(c) Thou is the original second person, singular pronoun. Thou and 
its plural ye are still in common use among the Friends, or Quakers, in 
the Bible and other sacred writing, and in antiquated and poetic forms of 
expression ; but in all ordinary speech or writing you is used in both the 
singular and the plural. Thy and thine for the possessive, thee for the 
objective, and thyself for emphasizing either the nominative or the objec- 
tive, are used like thou and ye. These pronouns seem also at some time 
to have acquired an insulting signification, still traceable in our literature. 
At Walter Kaleigh's trial, Lord Coke, having failed with argument and 
evidence, insulted the defendant by thouing him thus, "All that Lord 
Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper; for I thou thee, thou 
traitor." 

(d) Mine, thine, yours, ours, theirs, hers, are used instead of my, thy, 
your, our, their, her, when the limited noun is omitted, but the parsing of 
one form does not differ from that of the other. They are all personal 
pronouns in the possessive case ; not possessive pronouns. It is illogical to 
make a separate class for the so-called possessive pronouns, which are like 
all other personals except in case, unless we make a separate class also 
for the nominative, and one for the objective. If we make case a basis 
for classification of pronouns, we shall have just as good reason for classi- 



40 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

fying them according to person, number, and gender. We have no pro- 
nouns representing "both the possessor and the thing possessed." 

(e) I is the singular pronoun of the first person, and should always be 
used when the speaker refers to himself alone. Its possessive form is my 
or mine, and its objective form is me. 

(/) We is the plural pronoun of the first person, and should be used : 
(1) When the speaker or writer refers to himself as associated with some 
other person or persons ; (2) When the speaker or writer refers to him- 
self as the representative of a class, school, doctrine, people, community, 
section, state, or nation. The latter is known as the editorial we, and it 
is an exhibition of bad taste and unpardonable ignorance to use it instead 
of I, when the speaker refers to himself only. The possessive form of we 
is our or ours, and its objective form is us. 

(g) They often refers to persons indefinitely; as, " TJiey say." He 
and she are sometimes used in the same way. "He that wilfully injures 
another is a bad man." " She who knows merely how to dress, dance, 
and flirt, will never make a good wife." 

(h) The English language has no pronoun of the third person, singular 
number, and common gender ; and although we are very much in need of 
one, it is not probable that we shall ever have it. Some unsuccessful 
attempts have been made to adopt the word thon, from "that one," but 
usage sanctions the masculine forms, he, his, and him ; as, " If any person 
wishes to contribute to this cause, let him drop his money into the hat 
when he hears his name called." 

(i) Peculiar Uses of "It." — It is a personal pronoun of the third 
person, singular number, and neuter gender. It is used like other pro- 
nouns to represent a noun with which it agrees; as, "He bought the 
book and gave it to me." But it has also many peculiar uses : — 

(1) It is used for the names of infants; as, "The child stood by its 
mother." 

(2) It is used as the subject of the verb to be, followed by a comple- 
ment in any person and number ; as, " It is I." "It is you." " It is he." 
" It is we." " It is they." "Who is it ? " " What is it ? " 

Bemark. — In such sentences the antecedent is not the predicate pro- 
noun, but the name of the object not spoken of, but definitely understood 
by the speaker ; as, "It (the thing that we see) is he." 

(3) It is used as the grammatical subject of certain verbs which are 
followed by their logical subjects : as, " It is human to err." "It is evi- 
dent that he is mistaken" "I wish it to be understood that I did my 
best." 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 41 

Remark. — In such cases parse it as the subject of the verb, and the 
following phrase or clause in apposition with it. 

(4) It is used to represent an antecedent not expressed but obviously- 
understood ; as, " Princeton makes it (a mile) in 2.19§." 

(5) It is sometimes used to denote what the speaker cannot designate 
in any other way : the state or condition of things, or a point in time ; as, 
" It thunders.' ' " It rains." " It is two o'clock." 

SUB-CLASSES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

146. Personal pronouns have trie two sub-classes : Simple 
and Compound. 

147. The Simple Personals are J, thou, you, he, she, it, and 
their declined forms. 

148. The Compound Personals are myself, thyself, yourself, 
himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

149. They have two principal uses : (1) a reflexive use 
in the objective case ; (2) an intensive use in the nomina- 
tive or the objective case. This second use is merely for 
emphasis. 

The bear hung himself. The house was divided against itself. I, my- 
self, saw him do it. You, yourself told me. 

(a) Sometimes in poetic or antique forms of expression the compound 
form stands alone in the nominative; as, " Myself am hell." — Milton. 
"Giving out that himself was some great one." — Acts. But ordinarily 
it is nominative only when in apposition with another nominative ; as, 
u She, herself is coming " ; or is used as the complement of a copula ; as, 
" She is not herself any more." 

(6) Sometimes the simple personal is used instead of the compound ; 
as, "Get thee (thyself) behind me." "Make thee (thyself) an ark of 
gopher wood." But in such expressions as " Haste thee "it is better to 
regard the objective thee as idiomatically used for the nominative thou. 

(c) Self is sometimes used substantively ; as, " He is a great lover of 
self." " My own self," etc. 

(d) It seems to have an adverbial construction in "the self same 
place," which is equivalent to "the very same place." 

(e) Formerly hisself and their self were in common use, but they are 
now obsolete. Ourself is peculiar to the regal style. 



42 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

150. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 

(1) FIRST PERSON. (2) SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 



Nom. 


I. 


We. Thou, 


you. 


You, or ye. 


Pos. 


My. 


Our. Thy, ; 


your. 


Your. 


Obj. 


Me. 


Us. Thee,' 

THIRD PERSON 

/Singular. 


you. 


You. 

Plural. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


All genders. 


Nom. 


He. 


She. 


It. 


They. 


Pos. 


His. 


Hex. 


Its. 


Their. 


Obj. 


Him. 


Her. 


It. 


Them. 



(a) The pupil should fix the declension firmly in mind, and should 
never lose sight of the fact that the object of declension is to show the dif- 
ferent forms corresponding to the different persons, numbers, genders, and 
cases. Knowing this, he may avoid all errors in the use of the pronouns 
by mastering a very few rules, — especially Rules I. , II. , III. , IV. , V. , VI. , 
and XIV. There is no other way to learn to use the pronoun with any 
degree of assurance. It can never be done by imitation. 

(b) Our'n, your'n, his'n, her'n, are barbarisms too gross to be men- 
tioned. 

(c) In using two or more pronouns of different persons, the third per- 
son should precede the first, and the second should precede the first and 
third; as, " You, he, and I received the honors." This is named here 
merely because it is found in nearly all grammars, not because it logically 
belongs here. It is a matter of courtesy, not of grammar. The same 
rule of politeness would require the order of the pronouns to be reversed 
if we wished to speak in an uncomplimentary way; as, "I and you 
deserve the blame." Of course, one should never be impolite, neither 
should he use profane language ; but he may do either or both without 
violating any grammatical construction. 

151. Model for the Pronoun. 

(1) Species. (3) Sub-class. 

(2) Class. (4) Antecedent or subsequent. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 43 

(5) Agreement in (a) person, (5) number, (e) gender. 
(6> Rule. (9) Rule. 

(7) Case. (10) Declension. 

(8) Construction. 

(a) Declension may be given orally. 

152. Parsing of the Personal Pronoun. 

The boy gave me his top and took mine. 

153. Me, pro., per., simp., ante., name of the speaker, 

with which it agrees in 1st, sing., com., R. XIV., 
obj., obj. of [to], R. V. 

154. His, pro., per., simp., ante., boy, with which it 

agrees in 3d, sing., masc, R. XIV., poss., and 
limits top, R. VIII. 

155. Mine, pro., per., simp., ante., name of the speaker, 

with which it agrees in 1st, sing., com., R. XIV., 
poss., and lim. [top], R. VIII. 

Remark. — Mine is only another form of my, and is used when the 
limited noun is omitted. 

156. Parse the italicized words in the following sentences 
according to the preceding models. Punctuate your parsing 
correctly, and read to the class, grammar authority on 
questionable constructions. 

A. 1. We think. 2. She prattles. 3. Thou art adored. 
4. I hope you will give me the book I lent you. 5. Ours 
are as good as yours. 6. You must blame yourselves for 
your loss. 7. Behold the moon ; she cometh forth in her 
beauty. 8. He is taller than I. 9. Them that honor me, 
J will honor. 10. She herself is to blame. 11. He thought 
J was she. 

157. Parse italicized nouns by abridged model. 

B. 1. It is too early for flovsers. 2. She is very beautiful, and she 
knows it. 3. He wanted them to elect me chairman. 4. He wanted to be 



44 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

a preacher, but he wanted me to be a tailor. 5. She compelled him to go, 
6. And methought that the light-house looked lovely as Hope, 

7. His praise, ye winds, that from four quarters blow, 
Breathe oft and loud ; and wave your tops, ye pines. 

8. Her wheel at rest, the matron thrills no more 
With treasured tales and legendary lore. — Rogers. 

9. He being a boy, the Indians spared him. 10. J3zs being a foreigner 
should not induce us to underrate Mm. 11. They thought me to be you. 
12. /was supposed to be you. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

158. An Interrogative Pronoun is one that asks a question ; 
as, " Who called me ? " " What does he want ? " 

159. The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun, if it 
can properly be said to have one, comes after it and in 
another sentence. It is therefore sometimes called sub- 
sequent. Since the subsequent may be a noun or pro- 
noun of any person, number, or gender, these properties of 
the pronoun cannot be determined until the question is 
answered. Thus the question, "What is it?" may be 
answered, " It is 7" ; " It is you " ; " It is he " ; "It is Mary 
and Jane " ; " It is Greorge and Henry " ; or, " It is a house" 
In parsing the interrogative when the question is answered, 
we should name the responsive word, and give the person, 
number, and gender of the pronoun to agree with its own ; 
but when the question is not answered, we should say that 
the subsequent of the interrogative is its responsive word 
in the answer to the question, with which it agrees in 
person, number, and gender, unknown. 

160. There are only two interrogative pronouns, - — Who 
and What. 

(a) Which is also commonly classed among the interrogative pronouns, 
but its use is different from that of who and what. Which refers to one 
of a number of persons or things. The particular noun referred to is 
always expressed or definitely understood; as, " Which book do you 
want?" "I want the large book." " Which [hat] will you take?" 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 45 

" The cheapest [hat]." It will be observed also that the responsive word 
is not a noun, but an adjective. Which in such sentences should be 
parsed as an interrogative adjective. 

161. Who and what are used less definitely than which. 

162. Who is used when it is supposed that the word 
answering to it will be the name of a person. 

163. What is used when it is supposed that the word 
answering to it will be the name of a thing. 

(a) What is an adjective when it immediately precedes a noun ; as, 
u What horse shall I ride ? " Who is never used adjectively. 

164. Declension of the Interrogative. 

Norn. Who. Who came ? What. What is it ? 

Pos. Whose. Whose hat is it ? 

Obj. Whom. Whom did he want ? What. What did he want ? 

(a) The interrogative is never found in the nominative absolute. 

165. The Case and Construction of an interrogative pro- 
noun are always the same as that of its responsive word in 
the answer ; as, " Who came ? " " George came." " Who 
is it?" "It is George." "Whose book is it?" "It is 
George's book." "Whom did he want?" "He wanted 
George." 

(a) The following rule, which is applicable to all interrogative words, 
will be found very useful. Let the pupils illustrate it by applying it to 
every kind of word that can ask a question. 

166. Rule. — Every interrogative word has the same con- 
struction in the interrogative sentence as the responsive word 
has in the declarative sentence that answers the question. 

THE INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE. 

167. An interrogative sentence may often be made a 
dependent clause in a complex sentence ; it then sometimes 
becomes a relative clause ; as, " What have you ? " "I see 
what you have." Here what is a double relative, the sen- 



46 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

tence being equivalent to " I see the thing which you have." 
But sometimes, most frequently after the verbs know and 
ask, the clause introduced by who or what should be called 
an indirect interrogative clause ; as, " I know who dis- 
covered America." The sentence cannot mean, " I know 
the man who discovered America," for no one now living 
could truthfully make such a statement, and no school-boy 
would hesitate to say, " I know who discovered America." 
Again, the sentence, " I know who took the teacher's pen," 
does not mean, " I know the boy who did it." This would 
give no information, for he is a fellow-pupil whom we all 
know. Who in such sentences should be parsed as an 
indirect interrogative pronoun, having the same construc- 
tion as in the direct questions, " Who discovered America? " 
and "Who took the teacher's pen?" The entire clause is 
the object of the verb know. What has the same use in 
" I know what he has," and " He asked me ivhat I wanted." 
Let the pupil be very careful to distinguish between the 
relative use and the interrogative use of who and what. 

(a) No interrogative word is ever a connective. The object of a tran- 
sitive verb, whether it be a word or a clause, needs no connective. 
(If) The interrogative has no sub- classes. 

168. Parsing of the Interrogative Pronoun. 

(1) Who told you? 

(2) Whose horse is that ? John's. 

169. Who, pro., inter., subse., is the responsive word in 

the answer to the question, with which it agrees 
in per., num., and gen., unknown, R. XIV., nom., 
sub. of " told," R. I. 

170. Whose, pro., inter., subse., is "John's," with which 

it agrees in 3, sing., masc, R. XIV., poss. and 
lim. " horse," R. VIII. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 47 

171. Exercise for Parsing. 

(a) Refer to the outline for different constructions. 
(5) Write the parsing, and observe carefully the punctua- 
tion, capitalization, and spelling. 

A. 1. Who came with you? 2. With whom did you 
come? 3. What is he? A blacksmith. 4. Who called 
me? 5. Who is that? 6. Whose money do you spend? 
7. To whom did she speak? 8. By whom was the house 
built? 9. What is your opinion of good nature? 10. Who 
are you, what are you, and to whom do you belong ? 

B. 1. Who was the first president ? George Washington was the first 
president. 2. Who was the founder of Ehode Island ? The founder of 
Rhode Island was Roger Williams. 3. Do you know who I am ? 4. Ask 
her what she wants me to be, what she wants me to do, and whom she 
wants to help. 5. What constitutes a state ? 6. Who is the president ? 
7. What would a man give for his soul ? 8. What would a man give his 
soul for ? 

RELATIVE, OR CONJUNCTIVE, PRONOUNS. 

172. A Relative, or Conjunctive, Pronoun is one that joins to 
its antecedent a limiting clause ; as, " A man THAT is honest 
will be respected." " The buggy, which was in very bad 
condition, brought a good price." 

173. There are five relatives, who, which, that, as, and 
what. 

174. They do not show their person and number by 
their form, as may be seen from the following : — 

n 



You 

He 

She 

They 

We 



> who went to town, etc. 



48 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

175. The substantive limited by the relative clause is 
called the Antecedent. 

176. It is usually a noun or personal pronoun, but it may 
be a phrase or a clause ; as, " To stay away, which would 
be to acknowledge his inability to do the work, would keep 
him from being selected " ; " The boy closed the door, which 
darkened the room " ; or it may be an interrogative pro- 
noun ; as, "Who that has asked for bread has ever been 
refused? " It is never another relative. 

177. The antecedent is commonly in the nominative case 
or the objective, but may sometimes be in the nominative 
absolute; as, "John, who had been promised the position, 
having declined it, they gave it to me " ; or the possessive ; 
as, — 

" Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; 

His praise is lost, who waits till all commend." — Pope. 
" My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent me." — John vii. 16. 

(a) When the pronoun it is the subject of a sentence, it is often modi- 
fied by a relative clause that follows the predicate ; as, 1. " It is the tree 
that frightens my horse." 2. " It is I that calls him." 3. " It is you that 
is to blame." It is very common for speakers, writers, and even gram- 
marians to misconstrue such relative clauses. In most cases they belong 
to the subject it. It is the antecedent of the relative, and the verb in the 
subordinate sentence should therefore be of the third person singular, 
instead of agreeing in person and number with the predicate noun or pro- 
noun. It gives the sentence a very different meaning to construe the 
relative with the predicate. Thus the three sentences above are evidently 
intended to be the respective answers to the questions, 1. "What is it 
that frightens your horse ? " 2. " Who is it that calls him ? " 3. " Who 
is it that is to blame?" The first sentence could be the answer to the 
question, " What tree is it ? " Then tree would be the antecedent of the 
relative that, and the verb frightens would remain unchanged. And the 
third could be the answer to the question, "Who is to be censured?" 
Then it would read, " It is you that are to blame." In this case, the verb 
would determine the construction of the clause, or, rather, the construction 
of the clause would determine the form of the verb. Be very careful to 
determine what is the use of the clause, and then construct your sentence, 



. , CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 49 

or parse it, accordingly. Even President Bascom, in his Philosophy of 
Rhetoric, says: "It is this unexpected union and quick recoil of ideas 
that please the mind." 

CLASSES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

178. There are three classes of relatives : Simple, Com- 
pound, and Double. 

179. The simple relatives are who, which, that, and as. 

180. The compound relatives are formed by annexing 
ever or soever to the simple relatives who and which. That 
and as have no compound forms. The compound relatives 
are more comprehensive and less definite in their use than 
the simple relatives. 

181. The double relative is what. It is called double 
because it is equivalent to two parts, an antecedent part 
and a relative part. The antecedent of a simple or a com- 
pound relative is always expressed or understood in the 
sentence ; a double relative contains its own antecedent, 
and is always expanded into its two equivalent parts before 
it is parsed. It is better in most cases to expand what into 
the thing which or the thing that. What has also the com- 
pound forms, ivhatever and whatsoever, which are expanded 
into the thing whichever and the thing whichsoever. Thus 
the sentences, " I took what he gave me," and " You shall 
have whatever you want," mean, " I took the thing which he 
gave me," and "You shall have anything whichever you 
want." 

(a) Whoever and -whosoever have been erroneously treated as 
double relatives. They are compound, but not double. It is their peculiar 
characteristic to be used when their antecedents are understood ; but they 
do not, like what and whatever, contain their antecedents. 

(6) The objective form of the simple relative who is also sometimes 
used when its antecedent is not expressed ; as, " Whom the gods love die 
young." 



50 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

182. Personal and Relative Pronouns are alike in — 

(1) Both represent nouns. 

(2) Both have the properties and constructions of nouns. 

(3) Both agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender, 

(4) Both have the sub-classes, simple and compound. 

(5) Both admit of declension. 

183. Personal and Relatives are unlike in — 

(1) The relative has a connective use, and the personal has not. 

(2) The personal has a distinct form for each grammatical person, and 
the relative has not. 

(3) The personal may be used in either independent or subordinate 
propositions ; the relative only in subordinate. 

(4) The relative may be double ; the personal cannot. 

184. Declension of the Relative. 

Simple. Compound. Double. 

Norn. \ Who, which, Whoever or whosoever, ) ^hat. 

( that. whichever or whichsoever. ) 

Pos. Whose. Whosesoever. 

Obj. \ , J ' '[Whomsoever, whichsoever. What. 

( that. ) 

(a) Whose is the possessive either of who, vjhich, or that. 

(b) That is usually said to be indeclinable, but it is as declinable as 
which. 

185. Uses of the Relatives. 

A. KINDS OF OBJECTS REPRESENTED. 

186. Who is used for persons, or for other objects per- 
sonified ; as, "The architect, who lives in the city, came to 
see us." " The goose, who thought the dog an intruder, 
thus in winged words addressed him." 

{a) Who should never be used for brute animals, or for inanimate 
objects unless they are personified. 

187. Which may be used either for brute animals or for 
inanimate objects ; as, " His horse, which was bought with 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 51 

his father's money, is all he has left." " The house, which 
is heavily mortgaged, is all they own." 

(a) Which, in earlier English, was used for persons. This use of 
which is very frequent in the Bible; as, "Our Eather, which art in 
heaven," but it is not now good English. It was formerly also used sub- 
stantively ; as, "In the which." 

188. That may be used for persons, brute animals, or 
inanimate objects ; as, " The man that is sick wants food." 
" The cow that was sold yesterday died to-day." " The 
tree that fell stood near the corner of the house." 

B. KINDS OF CLAUSES. 

189. There are two kinds of relative clauses : Restrictive 
and Explanatory. 

190. A Restrictive clause is one that limits the assertion to 
a certain part of what is represented by the antecedent ; as, 
"Men that are honest are better than men that are dis- 
honest.^ "A boy that will lie is not to be trusted." 
" Words that are names are nouns." 

(a) A Restrictive clause has the force of an adjective; as, u honest 
men," "dishonest men," " name words." 

191. An Explanatory clause is one that explains the ante- 
cedent ; as, " Men, who are rational animals, are better than 
brutes, which are irrational animals" " Words, which are 
the signs of ideas, are divided into classes." " Mr. Harris, 
who has been there all the time, told me about it." 

(a) It may be seen from the above illustrations, that an explanatory 
clause either explains the idea of the antecedent and has the force of an 
appositive noun, or expresses an additional idea and has the force of a 
co-ordinate sentence. Thus, the meaning of the last three sentences is, 
"Men, rational animals, are better than brutes, irrational animals." 
" Words, signs of ideas, are divided into classes." " Mr. Harris told me 
about it, and he has been there all the time." 



52 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

REMARKS ON THE USES OF THE RELATIVES. 

192. That is never used in explanatory clauses, but is 
preferable to who or which in restrictive clauses. 

193. Who and which are used in explanatory clauses. 

(a) Good writers often use who and which in restrictive clauses, but noth- 
ing is often gained by it ; it is a violation of rule that should neither be en- 
couraged by the grammarian nor imitated by the student of composition. 

(b) When a relative is needed immediately after a preposition, it must 
be ivhom or which, for that cannot be so used. In this case we must 
either use the objective form of who or which in a restrictive clause, or 
close the sentence with a preposition. Either is allowable; as, "He is 
the man that I came with," or " He is the man with whom I came." 

(c) Who may sometimes be used in a restrictive clause to avoid the 
repetition of that ; as, "A woman that had a daughter who was very beau- 
tiful," or "A woman who had a daughter that was very beautiful." 

194. As. 

Many grammarians affirm that " as " is never a relative ; 

many, that it is always a relative after SUCH, many, and 

same ; while some, who I think are right, say that the truth 

lies between the two extremes. As is used principally like 

than in making comparisons ; but it will be observed that 

as, even after such or many, may be used in two different 

senses : (1) It may refer to an identical object previously 

mentioned, or (2) It may refer to two different objects or 

classes of objects, in such a manner as to suggest some 

similarity between them. It is the first use of as, if either, 

that entitles it to be called a relative. 

Examples. — (1) "She sang such songs as were called for." The 
meaning is that she sang, not similar, but the identical songs that were 
called for. " Such songs as " = " the songs that." In such sentences as 
should be parsed as a relative pronoun. But in such sentences as "I 
have often bought such bananas as you are selling, for five cents a dozen," 
the use of as is entirely different. I have bought, not the identical bananas 
which you are selling, but similar ones. 

(a) I believe it is safe to say that as is always used as a relative after 
the adjective same. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 53 

(b) It may be well to avoid difficult distinctions by calling "as" 
always a relative after the adjectives such, many, and same; but the 
teacher, at least, should know that the distinctions exist, and, when his 
classes are prepared for them, they will afford the very best material for 
lessons in thought. 

(c) As is indeclinable. It may be singular or plural ; masculine, femi- 
nine, or neuter ; nominative or objective. 

195. What and whatever are sometimes used like which 
and whichever ; as, " What consolation you get out of 
that speech you are welcome to." " Whatever money you 
have you may keep." Although these words immediately 
precede nouns, they cannot be called adjectives; for the 
sentences are evidently complex, and must contain con- 
nectives. The sentences mean, " You are welcome to the 
consolation which you get out of that speech," and " You 
may keep the money whichever you have." They cannot 
be double relatives, for they do not contain their antecedents, 
consolation and money. What is therefore a simple relative, 
equivalent to which ; and whatever is a compound relative, 
equivalent to whichever. 

CONNECTIVE USE OF THE RELATIVE. 

196. The relative is ahvays found in a complex sentence, 
and always depends for its construction on some word in 
the subordinate sentence, which it joins to its antecedent 
in the principal. Thus, the sentence, " A boy that is stu- 
dious will learn," is complex. " A boy will learn " is called 
the principal, and that is studious the subordinate sentence. 
The relative that joins the subordinate sentence to its ante- 
cedent boy. The relative pronoun therefore performs the 
office of a conjunction, on account of which it is sometimes 
called by its more appropriate name, conjunctive pronoun. 

197. Before parsing the relative, the pupil should always 
point out the principal sentence, naming its subject, predi- 



54 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

sate, and the antecedent of the relative ; then the subordi- 
nate sentence ; then the relative, stating its construction in 
the subordinate sentence, and also its connective use. 

198. Parsing of the Relative Pronoun. 

(1) A man that is careless with his business will soon lose it. 

(2) He will do such work as the man requires of him. 

(3) Whoever looks for perfection will be disappointed. 

(4) I shall be satisfied with what I receive = I shall be satisfied witl\ 
the thing which I receive. 

(5) Ask for whatever you want = Ask for anything whichever you want, 

(6) Whatever money was in the purse is mine = The money whichever 
was in the purse is mine. 

199. That, pro., rel., simp., ante, man, with which it 

agrees in 3, sing., masc, R. XIV., nom., subj. 
of is, R. I. 

200. As, pro., rel., simp., ante, work, with which it agrees 

in 3, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of requires^ 
R. IV. 

201. Whoever, pro., rel., comp., ante. \he], with which it 

agrees in 3, sing., masc, R. XIV., nom., subj. 
of looks, R. I. 

202. What, pro., rel., double, = the thing which. 

Thing, the ante, part, n., com., 3, sing., neut., obj., obj. of with, R. V. 
Which, the rel. part, pro., rel., simp., ante, thing, with which it agrees 
in 3, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of receive, R. IV. 

203. Whatever, pro., rel., comp., double = anything which- 

ever. 
Thing, the ante, part, n., com., 3, sing., neut., obj., obj. of for, R. V. 
Whichever, the rel. part, pro., rel., comp., ante, thing, with which it 
agrees in 3, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of want, R. IV. 

204. Whatever is equivalent to whichever, and is a pro., 

rel., comp. (but not double), ante, money, with 
which it agrees in 3, sing., neut., R. XIV., nom., 
subi of was, R. I. - 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 55 

205. Exercises for Parsing. 

(1) Name the principal sentence, the subordinate sentence, 
and the antecedent of the relative. 

(2) Tell whether the relative clause is restrictive or ex- 
planatory. 

(8) Write in full the parsing of the relatives, and give 
orally the case and construction of all nouns and personal 
pronouns. 

A. 1. Death is the season that tries our affections. 2. The 
eye, which sees all things, sees not itself. 3. He that gath- 
ereth in summer is a wise son. 4. The evil that men 
do lives after them. 5. Whoever said it must have been 
misinformed. 6. He is a man in whom I have little con- 
fidence. 7. Where are the flowers that you promised to 
send me? 8. She is the lady that I spoke of. 9. My 
brother, who lives in Kansas, came to see me. 10. My 
brother that lives in Kansas came to see me. 

B. 1. Who that has heard him once would ever hear him again ? 
2. This is the book that we are to study. 3. The fox, who saw the trap, 
said to his companion. 4. I believe in a religion whose origin is divine. 
5. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 6. The place to which we 
came was an open field. 7. I am not the man that he thought me to be. 
8. He is not the man that he was thought to be. 9. Whom the shoe fits, 
let him put it on. 10. He is the man whom we thought to be you. 11. He 
is the man ivhom we thought you to be. 

12. " Who stops to plunder at this signal hour, 

The birds shall tear him, and the dogs devour." 

— Pope's Homer. 
13. Whoever comes shall be admitted. 14. Take whichever you like 
best. 15. Words, which are the signs of ideas, are divided into classes. 
16. Words that are names are nouns. 17.* Do you see what I have ? 18. I 
do not care what she thinks. 19. Do you know what I have ? 20. He 
saw what I did. 21. He asked what I did. 22. Give me what you please. 

* Be careful to distinguish what as a double relative from what as an indirect 
interrogative. 



56 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

23. For what have we endured all this ? 24. I remember what was said. 
25. Fops are more attentive to what is showy than mindful of ivhat is 
necessary. 26. Conscience wakes the bitter memory of what he was. 
27. I heard ivhat he wanted. 28. Whom the gods love die young. 
29. TFtoever she touched turned to beauty. 30. Whatever purifies the 
heart also fortifies it. 31. Whatever he found, he took. 32. Whatever 
money I get, I spend. 33. Whatever he may do, I shall go. 34. Whoever 
studies will learn. 35. Whosoever will may come. 36. Whatsoever is 
more than these cometh of evil. 37. Whom the Lord loveth, he chasteneth. 
38. Whoso boasteth himself of a false gift, is like clouds and wind without 
rain. 

206. Outline of Substantives. Nouns and Pronouns. 

Bemark. — This outline may be referred to for difficult constructions 
in parsing, and for general review of Nouns and Pronouns. It might be 
profitable, also, to call the attention of the pupil to it before he studies 
these parts of speech. He will thus get a general knowledge of the entire 
subject before he studies it in detail. 

la. Classes. 
lb. Noun. 
lc. Proper. 
2c. Common. 
Id. Collective. 
2d. Abstract. 
3d Verbal. 
4d. Class. 
2b. Pronoun. 

lc. Personal: 7, thou, you, he, she, it, and their declined forms. 
Id. Simple. 
2d. Compound. 
2c. Relative. 

Id. Simple : Who, which, that, as. 
2d. Compound : Whoever, whichever. 
3d. Double: What. 
4:d. Compound-Double: Whatever. 
3c. Interrogative : Who and what in asking questions. 
2a. Properties. 
16. Person. 
lc. First. 
2c. Second. 
3c. Third. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 57 

25. Number, 
lc. Singular. 
2c. Plural. 
35. Gender. 
lc. Masculine. 
2c. Feminine. 
3c. Neuter. 
4c. Common. 
45. Case. 

lc. Nominative. 
Id. Dependent Constructions. 
lc. Subject of a finite verb : Sarah and I will go. 
2e. Complement of a copulative verb whose subject is nomina- 
tive : He is the thief. I thought you were he. He was 
thought to be the thief. You were thought to be he. 
3c. Complement of a copulative participle whose subject is pos- 
sessive : His being a capitalist should not excuse him. 
4c. In Apposition. 

1/. With a word : Jones the banker died. 

2/. With a phrase : His objecting to my statement, a very rude 

act, caused my defeat. 
3/. With a sentence : He came to my aid just in time, a kind- 
ness for which I shall always be thankful. 
2d. Absolute Constructions. 

lc. By direct address : George, bring me your book. 

2c. By exclamation : Mercy ! 

3c. By pleonasm : The stars, they shall shine forever. 

4c. By inscription : Blair's Rhetoric. 

be. With (subject of) a participle : Spring having come, we 

planted our flowers. (See K. III.) 
6e. In apposition : Johnson, the preacher, having told us, we 
believed it. 
2c. Possessive. 

Id. Limiting a noun of different signification : Brown'' s bank. My 

hat. 
2d. Limiting a noun of same signification = apposition : He read 
Nelson the senator's speech. (Better, He read Senator 
Nelson's speech.) 
3c. Objective. 

Id. Object of a transitive verb : They saw James and me. 

2d. Object of a preposition : She went with him and her father. 



58 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

3d. Subject of an infinitive : I believed the boy to be a liar. We 

wanted him to leave us. 
4d. Complement of an infinitive copula whose subject is objective : 

We thought him to be a merchant. We thought him to 

be her. 
5d. In apposition : We saw Brown, the new minister. 
6d. By pleonasm : Consider the lilies, how they grow. 

207. Syntax of Substantives. 

208. Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject 
of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

" Ccesar conquered Gaul." "We sometimes find men who think they 
know all that is known." " James and i" left the slate where we thought 
it would be easily found." 

(a) To this rule there are no exceptions, and it is the only rule that is 
exclusively applicable to the nominative case. 

(b) There is no liability to error in the use of nouns according to this 
rule, since they do not have different forms for the nominative case and 
the objective. 

209. In applying this rule to the pronoun we are liable 
to error, — 

(a) When a personal, relative, or interrogative pronoun is the subject 
of an objective clause; as, u He thought John and me were to blame." 
"He is a man whom you would not suppose would do such a thing." 
" Whom do you think is the best ? " 

In the first sentence I should be used instead of me, 
because it stands as the subject of were. In the second 
the pronoun is the subject of would do, and should be who 
instead of whom. In the third whom should be changed to 
who, because it is the subject of is. 

(&) When the verb is not expressed. 

(1) Is she as tall as me ? — Shakespeare. 

(2) She suffers hourly more than me. — Swift. 

(3) The nations not so blessed as thee. — Thomson. 

(4) It is not for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. — Scott. 

(5) She was neither better or wiser than you or me. — TJiackeray. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 59 

Such expressions should be condemned as false syntax, 
regardless of their authors ; they must not be excused on 
the ground of enallage. 

210. The subject of a finite verb is always a noun or some 
expression used as a noun. It may be — 

(1) A noun; as, " God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb." 

(2) A pronoun; as, " She plays better than she thinks." 

(3) An infinitive ; as, " To be contents his natural desire." 

(4) A participle ; as, " Thinking is harder than any other work." 
(5; A subordinate sentence; as, u When he came is 'not known." 

211. The pronoun it is often used as the grammatical 
subject of certain verbs that are followed by their logical 
subjects; as, "It is pleasant to see the sun set" "It is 
possible that he is mistaken" 

(a) It, in such cases, is sometimes called an expletive ; but it should be 
parsed as the subject of the verb, because it is the word with which the 
verb agrees ; and the logical subject, generally an infinitive phrase or a 
subordinate proposition, should be parsed as an appositive explaining it. 

212. The adverb there is often used to introduce a sen- 
tence in which the verb precedes its subject ; as, " There 
came to the town a very strange woman" 

(a) There in such cases should be parsed as an introductory expletive. 

213. Exercises. 

I. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, and 
give reasons for your selection. 

(1) I saw the man they thought was dead. 

(2) They met a young man they agreed was nice looking. 

(3) He was dissatisfied with those circumstances had forbidden 

should ever be like himself. 

(4) do you think is in the room ? 

(5) It is not for such as to fill such a position. 

(6) is taller than , but am heavier than . 



60 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

II. Point out the subjects of the finite verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences, and tell whether each is a noun, pronoun, 
infinitive, participle, or sentence. 

(1) Remote from cities lived a swain. 

(2) For a man in health to be idle is disreputable. 

(3) It is sinful to neglect the development of our powers. 

(4) Bestowing a kindness is better than receiving one. 

(5) He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. 

(6) Let him know that I have heard it. 

(7) That he grows weaker each day is discouraging. 

214. Rule II. — The subject of an infinitive is in the 
object case when it is not also the subject of the finite verb on 
which the infinitive depends. 

We believe them to be mistaken. 

She wants me to learn. 

He is the man whom you thought to be me. 

Whom do you want to have your money ? 

215. In the above sentences the subjects of the infini- 
tives, being different from the subjects of the finite verbs, 
are put in the objective case ; but in each of the following 
sentences the subject of the infinitive is also the subject of 
the finite verb, and is therefore in the nominative case. 

We do not intend to be mistaken. 

She wants to learn. 

He is the man who was thought to be me. 

Who wants to have your money ? 

216. It may be well for the student to know that some 
of our very best grammarians reject the above rule alto- 
gether, and parse the objective subject of the infinitive as 
the object of the preceding verb ; but their excellence and 
their eminence as grammarians come in spite of this blun- 
der, not on account of it. 

217. To parse the words them, me, and whom, in the first 
four sentences above, as the objects of their preceding 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 61 

verbs, does not give the meanings intended. Indeed, it 
sometimes gives the sentence just the contrary meaning ; 
as, " We wanted him to leave." " She believes me to be a 
liar." Me in the last sentence has the same relation to 
believes that /has in " She believes I am a liar." Now we 
can no more say that me is objective because it follows the 
transitive verb believe in one sentence, than that I is nomi- 
native because it follows the transitive verb believe in the 
other. The two pronouns stand in precisely the same 
relation to the verb believe ; then if Zis nominative because 
it is the subject of am, me must be objective because it is 
the subject of to be. The subject of an infinitive is objec- 
tive, not because it follows a transitive verb or preposition, 
but because it is the subject of the infinitive, just as the sub- 
ject of a finite verb is nominative because it is the subject 
of the finite verb. In other words, the language is so con- 
structed. Neither is this objective subject a construction 
peculiar to the English ; it is just as common, and much 
more noticeable on account of their more extended inflec- 
tion, in the Latin and the Greek ; and it is so understood 
and disposed of by the grammarians of those languages. 

218. " When the infinitive has a subject of its own, it 
is in the accusative. When, however, the subject of the 
infinitive is not different from the principal subject of the 
sentence, it is not expressed." — Kilhner's Gcreek Gram- 
mar. 

219. The subject of the infinitive may be, — 

(1) A noun; as, " We want Paul to sing for us." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " We want him to sing for us." 

(3) A participle; as, " He thinks cheating me to be beating me." 

(4) Another infinitive ; as, " He thinks to cheat to be to rob." 

(5) A clause; as, u He thinks that I say nothing about it to be evi- 
dence that I know nothing." 



62 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

220. This is one of the rules most frequently violated, 
and it should be thoroughly mastered by the pupil. 

221. The infinitive may usually be known by the sign 
to before it, but the sign is generally omitted after the 
verbs bid, dare, feel, do, have, hear, let, make, need, see ; as, 
" Make him be still." " We heard him say it." " I saw 
him do it." 

(a) See syntax of R. XVI. 

222. Exercises. 

I. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, and 
give reasons for your selection: — 

(1) I wish to go. 

(2) They expected to be a teacher. 

(3) She wanted John and to go with her. 

(4) For to do his work well it is necessary for to stay away 

from him. 

(5) We supposed to understand it. 

(6) He is the man we thought to be you. 

(7) do you expect to accept such an offer ? 

II. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns used 
as the subjects of infinitives, five containing relative pro- 
nouns, and five containing interrogative pronouns. 

III. Write sentences in which a noun, a pronoun, a par- 
ticiple, an infinitive, and a clause are each used as the sub- 
ject of an infinitive. 

223. Rule III. — When the subject of a participle does 
not depend upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the 
possessive case or nominative absolute ; possessive when the 
participle is used as a noun in a dependent construction, and 
absolute when the participle with its subject is used inde- 
pendently. 

(a) This rule is not to be found in any other grammar, but the stu- 
dent will find it verified by all correct sentences in which are found sub- 
jects of participles. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 63 

224. It must first be understood that, as the rule implies, 
the subject of a participle may depend upon some other 
word; when it does, it is always governed by the other 
word, not by the participle. 

225. Thus the subject of a participle may be also, — 

(1) The subject of a finite verb; as, u Alice, blushing, answered 
yes." 

(2) The object of a transitive verb; as, "We saw John stealing 
peaches" 

(3) The complement of a copulative verb ; as, " He is a man admired 
by us all." 

(4) The object of a preposition ; as, " Go to the woman standing in the 
door, and tell her to come in." 

(5) In apposition; as, " Sho waiter, the gentleman making you the 
offer, is a very successful business man." " He wrote to Jordan, the 
scientist having charge of the expedition." 

226. In the following sentences the subjects of the par- 
ticiples do not depend upon any other words. In the first 
three the participles are used as nouns in dependent con- 
structions, and their subjects are therefore put in the pos- 
sessive case ; the subjects in the fourth and fifth are in the 
nominative absolute, because the participles, together with 
their subjects, are used independently. 

(1) Mary^s leaving surprised everybody. 

(2) I understand your quibbling with him. 

(3) We were not surprised at his accepting your proposition. 

(4) Brown coming in, we left the room. 

(5) Our leader having been disabled, our undertaking had to be aban- 
doned. 

227. The subject of a participle may be, — 

(1) A noun; as, " The train having left us, we walked." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " He appearing so sincere, we all believed him." 

(3) A participle; as, " Speaking in public being much encouraged, we 
soon learned to speak with ease." 



64 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(4) An infinitive; as, " To whisper having been forbidden, we had 
nothing left but to work. ' ' 

(5) A clause; as, " That he could not have done it himself having been 
established, let us proceed to the next proposition." 

228. There is but little liability to error in using either 
nouns or pronouns according to this rule. 

229. Rule IV. — The object of an active transitive verb 
is in the objective case. 

God rules the world which he created. 

He came to learn grammar. 

The limb struck George and me. 

Whom did he call ? 

Then there was a little girl peeling potatoes. 

230. Intransitive Verbs are sometimes said to govern ob- 
jects of similar signification ; as, " To die a death" " To 
live a life" but in all such cases the intransitive verb has 
become transitive. Any verb is transitive when it is used 
so as to express to the mind the thought that an action 
begins with the subject and passes over to an object. An 
intransitive verb can never govern an object, because it 
represents the action, being, or state as belonging wholly to 
the subject. 

231. The Indirect Object. 

In addition to the direct object, some verbs take another, 
called the indirect object; as, "Tell us a story." "Give 
Henry a pencil." "He taught them logic." "He made 
me a coat." It is better to parse all such words as the 
object of a preposition, usually to or for, understood. The 
preposition is omitted only because the relation is clear 
without it. And whenever we think that the relation 
would not be clearly implied, and when we wish to make 
the relation very emphatic, we always express the preposi- 
tion. In inflected languages such words are put in the 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 65 

dative (dare, to give) case ; in English they are in the 
objective. But even in English they are sometimes called 
dative objectives, to distinguish them from the accusative 
objectives, or direct objects. The verbs give, allow, deny, 
ask, refuse, offer, envy, fine, pay, cost, promise, send, teach, 
tell, and some others, may be followed by the indirect 
object; but in signification these verbs may all be regarded 
as modifications of the verb give. 

232. Resultant or Factitive Object. 

An additional objective is often used so as to denote the 
result of the verb's action upon that which is represented 
by the direct object ; as, " Too much study has made the 
man a lunatic" " We appointed him leader" This addi- 
tional objective is not the object of the verb, but is in 
apposition with the object. A verb cannot govern two 
objects not joined by a connective. 

233. Object of a Passive Verb. 

In such sentences as the following the indirect object in 
the active has been made the subject in the passive, and 
. the direct object in the active remains objective when the 
verb becomes passive. " I was allowed great liberty" 

234. The rule is applicable to infinite as well as to finite 
verbs. 

235. The object of a transitive verb may be, — 

(1) A noun; as, " Mollie solved the problem.'''' 

(2) Apronoun; as, "They saw me." 

(3) An infinitive phrase ; as, " I like to play." " He wants to go to 
town with the children.'''' 

(4) A participle or a participial phrase; " He prohibited whispering." 
u They forbade our proceeding another step." 

(5) A sentence; as, " We believe they are mistaken." 

236. This rule is violated most frequently when the 
object of a transitive verb is a noun and a pronoun ; as, 



66 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

"He saw Edith and J." "Mary called Henry and J." 
This is a very gross error, and the ability to avoid it alto- 
gether will more than compensate for the careful study it 
will require. 

237. Objective without a governing word. (See Par. 243.) 

238. Exercises. 

I. Point out and describe the objects in the following sen- 
tences : — 

(1) Anna plucked the prettiest flower. 

(2) We saw John driving the nail. 

(3) We went to see Mary Anderson. 

(4) My brother likes to study everything, but I like running and jump- 
ing better than studying anything. 

(5) He knows how to make mountains out of mole hills. 

(6) He ordered the horse to be saddled. 
.(7) Let me give you my pencil. 

(8) Jacob said, I will serve thee seven years for Rachel. 

(9) I was offered a lucrative position. 

(10) I was promised a car. 

(11) Do not let an imperfect understanding satisfy you, but make your- 
self master of all the details. 

(12) We called them heroes. 

II. Write sentences illustrating the direct object, or the 
accusative objective ; the indirect object, or the dative objec- 
tive ; the resultant, or factitive objective ; and the objective 
without a governing word. 

III. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, giv- 
ing reasons for your selections : — 

(1) I found assisting . 

(2) Success in that battle made a soldier. 

(3) I shall ask the question when I see . 

(4) They will not hurt Frank and . 

(5) They invited my brother and . 

(6) he had most injured he had the greatest reason to love. 

(7) prejudice has biased, you can never convince. 

(8) did you elect ? 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 67 

(9) We heard you nominated. 

(10) We both wanted the position, but he does not want either John 
or . 

(11) that honor — — , I will honor. 

239. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used as the object 
of a preposition is in the objective case. 

"The ruins of Parthenon stand upon the Acropolis, in the city of 
Athens.'''' "The temple of fame stands upon the grave; the fire that 
burns there is kindled from the ashes of great men." 

240. The object of a preposition may be, — 

(1) A noun; as, " He came from the field." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " Speak to me" 

(3) A participle; as, " Oblige me by reading this letter." 

(4) An infinitive; as, "She did, nothing but cry." "I am about to 
leave." 

(5) An adjective; as, "On high." 

(6) An adverb ; as, "From here to there is ten feet." 

(7) A prepositional phrase; as, "From over the sea." 

(8) A subordinate sentence; as, "He hath given assurance unto man 
in that he hath raised him from the dead." 

241. This rule is never violated in the use of a noun, 
but it requires great care to use our pronouns according 
to it. 

242. Nouns of time, distance, measure, etc., are said to 
be in the objective case without a governing word; as, 
" The lake is a mile wide." " The rule is a foot long." 
" The child is ten years old." But it is better to regard 
such nouns as governed by prepositions unexpressed. The 
sentences mean : " The lake is wide to the extent of a mile." 
" The rule is long to the length of a foot." " The child is 
old to the extent of ten years." 

243. These prepositions are omitted for two reasons : 
Because they make awkward expressions if expressed, and 
because the relation is clear without them. A noun, to 
be in the objective case, must be governed by some word. 



68 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

244. The object of a preposition follows it when the 
sentence is not inverted. It frequently precedes the prep- 
osition in poetry; as, "From peak to peak, the rattling 
crags among " ; and in prose, when we wish to call par- 
ticular attention to the object ; as, " His conduct we did 
not approve of." 

245. The relative that precedes the preposition that gov- 
erns it ; as, " He is the man that I came with." 

246. Exercises. 

I. Name the objects of the prepositions in the following 
sentences : — 

(1) To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. 

(2) The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South 
Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her revolutionary and other 
merits, meets my hearty concurrence. — Daniel Webster. 

(3) Into the jaws of Death, into the mouth of Hell, 
Eode the Six Hundred. — Tennyson. 

(4) At midnight in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. — Halleck. 

(5) But now no sound of laughter was heard among the foes, 
A wild and wrathful clamor from all the vanguard rose. 

(6) Kun to your houses, fall upon your knees, 
Pray to the gods to intermit the plague 

That needs must light on this ingratitude. — Shakespeare. 

(7) The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure ; 
the woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel ; the air is per- 
fumed by the sweetbriar and wild rose ; the meadows are enamelled with 
clover blossoms ; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum begin to 
swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. — Irving. 

II. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, giving 
reasons for your selections : — 

(1) He sat by and . 

(2) did you give it to ? 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 69 

(3) Mary came with and . 

(4) He spoke to Susan and . 

(5) did you complain to ? 

(6) was it from ? 

(7) Between you and , I do not care what he says. 

(8) There are still a few who, like and , drink nothing but 

water. 

(9) He sat between and . 

(10) She looks neither like her other brother, nor . 

(11) He is the man I told you about. 

(12) This life has joys for you and . 

(13) All are gone but and . 

(14) He bought it for Kate and . 

(15) They sat just behind and . 

247. Rule VI. — A noun or pronoun used as the comple- 
ment of a copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. 

248. Exception. 

When the subject of a copulative participle is possessive 
the complement is nominative. 

249. This rule is usually stated incorrectly, so as to be 
applicable only to the nominative case ; but it applies to 
the objective case when the copula is an infinitive with its 
subject different from that of the finite verb ; and it applies 
to the nominative absolute case when the copula is a par- 
ticiple having its subject in the nominative absolute. 

250. Examples. 

(1) In the Nominative : — 

That man is a soldier. 

If I were you I would try to be a musician. 

Who is he ? 

He is not the man that you thought he was. 

(2) In the Objective : — 

He thought me to be her. 

We want the boy to become a preacher. 

We expect them to be our companions. 

If I were you I would get him to be a musician. 



70 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(a) In applying this rule to the objective case we must determine the 
case of the subject of the infinitive by R. II. Thus, in "I want him to 
be a scholar" scholar is objective because him, the subject of the infini- 
tive, being different from the subject of the finite verb, is objective ; but 
in " I want to be a scholar ," scholar is in the nominative case, to agree 
with the subject of to be, which is I, the subject of the finite verb. 

(3) In the Nominative Absolute Case : — 

(a) In the sentence, "I believe him because he is a scholar,' 1 '' scholar 
is in the nominative case to agree with he, the subject of is. In the sen- 
tence meaning the same thing, u He being a scholar, I believe him," the 
copulative verb is has been changed to the participle being ; and although 
he has not changed its form, it has become nominative absolute in case, 
because it is the subject of the participle. Scholar, the complement of 
being, must be either in the nominative, or nominative absolute; and 
since there is no reason for supposing this an exception to the rule, it 
should be parsed in the nominative absolute case. 

251. Explanation of Exception. 

" That he is a scholar has never been questioned." In 
this, the subject of the subordinate clause is he, and the 
complement is scholar, both in the nominative case. But 
the clause is abridged by dropping that, changing the finite 
verb is to the participle being, changing the nominative 
he to the possessive his, and leaving scholar unchanged. 
Then we have, "His being a scholar has never been ques- 
tioned." His, the subject of being, is evidently possessive, 
but why is scholar, the complement, nominative ? 

(1) Scholar was nominative before the clause was abridged. 

(2) No change has taken place in the process of abridgment to cause 
any change in its case, unless it should follow the general rule and be- 
come possessive when the subject becomes possessive. 

(3) It is not possessive, for it does not have the possessive sign ; 
neither does it denote possession. 

(4) Therefore "scholar," or the complement in all such cases, is 
nominative. 

252. The complement of the copulative verb is always 
a noun, or an adjective, or some expression so used, and 



CLASSES OF PKONOUNS. 71 

is called the attributive complement. The pupil should be 
careful to distinguish between the attributive complement 
and the objective complement. The attributive complement 
refers to the same person or thing as the subject ; as, " He 
is a soldier." " The man is a mason." " He expects me 
to become a musician." But the object complement refers 
to a different person or £Am# ; as, " John killed a snake." 
" She bought a house." " Jones sold his farm." 

253. Be careful to distinguish intransitive verbs that 
are used as impure copulas followed by attributive com- 
plements, from transitive verbs followed by objective com- 
plements ; as, " He became a sailor." 

254. The passive voice is often followed by attributive 
complements ; as, " He was appointed judge." 

255. Exercises. 

I. Point out the complements in the following sentences, 
and tell the cases of those that are nouns and pronouns : — 

(1) The world is but a stage ; all the men and women merely players. 

(2) My friend was appointed chairman. 

(3) She walks a queen. 

(4) He is a farmer. 

(5) He will become a better man. 

(6) To study correctly is to learn. 

(7) The general opinion is that Mrs. Clearwater planned the murder. 

(8) Now I am myself again. 

(9) Cheating is stealing. 

(10) He appears to be a Canadian. 

II. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving reasons 
for your selections : — 

(1) It was not ; it was either or . 

(2) Was it you meant ? 

(3) Was it or that you called ? 

(4) If I were , I would send for the doctor. 

(5) If it were , I would act differently. 

(6) It was - — I sought. 



72 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(7) I knew it was , but she thought it to be . 

(8) do you think me to be ? 

(9) do men say that I am ? 

(10) It was you said it was. 

(11) do you take us to be ? 

(12) He is the man I thought you to be. 

(13) He is the man I thought to be you. 

(14) No matter the vanquished be. 

(15) It was not that came for us. 

(16) I know you to be . 

(17) Its being should make no difference. 

(18) There is no doubt of its being . 

256. Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun in apposition is in 
the same case as the noun or pronoun which it explains, 

257. A predicate noun, although meaning the same as 
the subject, is not in apposition. The copulative verb is 
the connecting element; as, " Harry is a farmer." 

258. A noun in any case may have a noun in apposition 
with it. 

Examples. — (1) In the nominative; as, "Hope, the balm of life, 
soothes us under misfortune." " The mountain, Vesuvius, poured forth 
a torrent of lava." 

(2) In the nominative absolute ; as, "Brown, the minister, having told 
us, we believed it." " John, you little rascal, what did you do it for ? " 

(3) In the objective; as, "We saw Forrest, the great tragedian, in 
Hamlet." " I sat by Jones, the harness-maker.' 1 '' 

(4) In the possessive; as, "William the Conqueror 1 s victory at the 
battle of Hastings decided the fate of England." 

259. Apposition, or identification in language, is much 
more comprehensive than is usually supposed. It belongs, 
not to substantives alone, but also to verbs, adjectives, ad- 
verbs, phrases, and clauses. " Come here where we are." 
Where we are is identical with here. " Let us start now, 
while it is cool." While it is cool is in apposition with now. 
"There where the accident occurred." Where the accident 
occurred is in apposition with there. " He has sunk to the 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 73 

lowest depths of disgrace, to the convict's cell" To the con- 
vict's cell is in apposition with to the lowest depths of dis- 
grace. " Let him who is perfect, who has no faults, throw 
the first stone." Who has no faults is in apposition with 
who is perfect, etc. 

260. The word as frequently introduces an explanatory 
term; as, " Electricity, as a motive force, promises great 
results." " Shakespeare, as a dramatic artist, has no 
equal"; etc. In such cases, some regard as as merely an 
expletive, and parse the following term in apposition with 
the preceding; but it seems preferable to consider as in 
such cases as a preposition governing the noun which 
follows. 

261. The word and is frequently used without conjunc- 
tive force when it precedes an explanatory term ; as, " We 
believe in Christ and him crucified." In such cases con- 
sider and merely an expletive, and the term following it 
in apposition with the one preceding. 

262. The appositive term must always agree in case 
with the one which it explains, but it need not agree with 
it in any other property, as may be seen from the follow- 
ing examples : " The Kenite tribe, the descendants of 
Hobab." ■ — Milmarfs History of the Jews. " But how can 
you, a soul, still hunger and thirst ? " " Who seized the 
wife to me, his host, and fled." 

263. The word of is frequently followed by a term 
meaning the same as the preceding; as, u The month of 
December" ; "The city of Boston"; meaning, "The month, 
December"; "The city, Boston"; but in such cases the 
term following of must be parsed as its object. 

264. A pronoun of the first or second person is often 
followed by the appositive ; as, " I, John" " But what is 
that to you, receivers?" 



74 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

265. When a noun in the possessive case is limited by 
another noun in apposition with it, the possessive sign 
is put to the noun immediately preceding the name of 
the object possessed; as, " Bring me John the Baptist's 
head." 

266. A noun may be in apposition with a sentence or 
phrase ; as, "He promised me the use of his library, a kind- 
ness for which I am very thankful." "To leave so abruptly, 
an act which we could not explain, would certainly arouse 
suspicion." 

267. A distributive term in the singular is frequently 
used to explain, in some way, a comprehensive plural ; as, 
" Go ye, every man, unto his city." " They love one an- 
other." Such sentences as the last are not easily disposed 
of. One and another, or the nouns which they limit, are 
sometimes parsed as in apposition with they. But this 
cannot be ; for, evidently, the noun that is limited by one 
is in the nominative case, but the noun that is limited* by 
another is in the objective case, the meaning of the sen- 
tence being, "One person loves another person" There is 
a case of apposition here, but it is one sentence in apposi- 
tion with another sentence. The sentence, They love, is 
explained by the sentence, One person loves another person. 

268. In cases of enumeration, or specification, parts are 
often put in apposition with the whole; as, "The whole 
army fled, some one way, some another." But here again, 
the explanatory sentences are in apposition with the gen- 
eral statement. 

269. A proper noun frequently either explains, or is 
explained by, a common noun ; as, "The poet, Milton " ; or 
"Milton, the poet." "The fiery mountain, Vesuvius" ; or 
"Vesuvius, the mountain of fire." 

270. The resultant, or factitive objective, is in apposition 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 75 

with the direct object ; as, " Make me a child again, just 
for to-night." u We appointed Harrison chairman:' 
271. Exercises. 

I. Point out the appositives in the following sentences: 

(1) Hope, the star of life, never sets. 

(2) Delightful task, to rear the tender thought. 

(3) He rescued the child from the burning building, an act of heroism 
which deserves recognition. 

(4) There stood an unsold captive in the mart, 
A gray-haired and majestic old man. 

(5) This is my answer: not that I love Caesar less, but that I love 
Eome more. 

(6) It is he, my old friend and benefactor. 

(7) A doubt that any one should challenge his right had never crossed 
his mind. 

(8) I count this thing to be grandly true, 
That a noble deed is a step toward God. 

(9) True wit is like a precious stone, 

Dug from the Indian mine, 
Which boasts two various powers in one, 
To cut as well as shine. — Swift. 

(10) O Caledonia ! stern and wild ; 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood ; 

Land of the mountain and the flood ; 

Land of my sires ! What mortal hand 

Can e'er untie the filial band 

That knits me to thy rugged strand ! — W. Scott. 

II. Justify or condemn the following sentences, giving 
reasons : — 

(1) We will make a covenant, thee and me. 

(2) The word came not to Esau, the hunter, him that stayed at home ; 
but to Jacob, the plain man, he that dwells in tents. 

(3) Power is given to the man of God, he that is led by the spirit of God. 

(4) He deems God to be the creditor, he to whom the debt should be 
paid. 

(5) Christ and him crucified is the alpha and omega. 

(6) We believe in Christ, he who is the head of the church. 

(7) Our Shepherd, him who is styled King of Saints, will surely come. 



76 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

272. Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun limiting another 
noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive 
case. 

273. Express the relation of possession in the most ap- 
propriate manner. Use either the possessive sign or a 
phrase introduced by of according to euphony and the 
best usage. 

274. Exercise. 

I. Rewrite the following, making any change you think 
necessary : — 

(1) His misfortunes awaken nobody s pity, though no ones ability 
ever went further for others good. 

(2) A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for 
mans advantages. 

(3) Five year's interest remained unpaid. 

(4) Six month's wages will then be due. 

(5) I admire Moses's law as much as Socrates' s philosophy. 

(6) Marcy's letter, the Secretary of War, is a masterly reply. 

(7) John's brother's wife's sister married a burglar. 

(8) It is not your business or any body else's. 

(9) The wife of the captain of the Alabama died this morning. 

(10) Keed & Kellogg' s Grammar. Reed's and Kellogg' s Grammar. 
Reed & Kellogg' s Grammars. Reed's & Kellogg' s Grammars. (Give 
meanings.) 

(11) Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife are always seen together. 

275. Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used independently 
is in the nominative absolute case. 

* 276. This rule covers Exclamation, Address, Pleonasm, and 
Inscription. 

277. The subject of a participle is also in the nominative 
absolute case, as is explained under R. III. 

278. Exclamation, Address, and Pleonasm are all indica- 
tive of strong emotion ; but they should be sparingly em- 
ployed, as excessive use of them weakens the style of 
composition. 



CLASSES OF PKONOUNS. 77 

279. This rule applies to pronouns, but rarely ; as, " Mis- 
erable they ! " — Thomson. " O ! Rare we ! " — Qowper. 

280. All names inscribed on coins, monuments, or signs ; 
all titles of books ; all headings, superscriptions, and sub- 
scriptions, are in the nominative absolute ease by inscription. 

281. When the name of a person addressed is put after 
the sentence, as, U I appeal to you, Mr. Chairman" we 
cannot tell whether to parse it as absolute by address, or 
in apposition with the preceding pronoun. In a declinable 
language such a noun as the one above would as likely be 
in the accusative (objective), in apposition with the pre- 
ceding pronoun, as in the vocative (nominative absolute). 

282. Pleonasm is used when some object is of more 
importance to our thought or feeling than what we wish 
to say about it ; as, " The boy ! Oh, where was he ? " 

283. The infinitive may be used by pleonasm ; as, " To 
be, or not to be, that's the question." 

284. In parsing nouns and pronouns under the rule, the 
pupil should be required to state their constructions defi- 
nitely, — whether they are used by exclamation, address, 
pleonasm, or inscription. 

285. Exercise. 

I. State definitely the case and construction of every noun 
and pronoun in the following selections : — 

(1) He that hath, to him shall be given. 

(2) He that is holy, let him be holy still. 

(3) The North and the South, thou hast created them. 

(4) I should not like to see her limping back, poor beast. 

(5) Oh ! deep enchanted prelude of repose, 

The Eden of bliss, the twilight of our woes. — Campbell. 

(6) That very law that moulds the tear, 

And bids it trickle from its source, 
That law preserves the earth a sphere, 
And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers. 



T8 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(7) To be resigned when ills betide, 
Patient when favors are denied, 

And pleased with favors given ; 
Dear Chloe, this is wisdom's part, 
This is that incense of the heart, 

Whose fragrance smells to heaven. — Dr. Cotton. 

286. Rule XIV. — A pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
in person, number, and gender. 

287. Although this rule is concerned particularly with 
pronouns, it is thought best to give it under the substan- 
tive. 

288. It will require the utmost diligence on the part of 
the pupil to use his pronouns according to this rule, but 
this he must do, if he expects to speak what will be 
listened to, or write what will be read. 

(1) Cool is thy brow, my son, and I am chill 

As to my bosom i" have tried to press thee. — Willis, 

(2) Woodman, spare that tree, 

Touch not a single bough ; 
In youth it sheltered me, 

And Til protect it now. 
'Twas my forefather's hand 

That placed it near his cot ; 
Then, woodman, let iff. stand ; 

Thy axe shall harm it not. — Morris. 

289. In applying this rule, remember : — 

(1) Two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor must be 
represented by a singular pronoun ; as, " When he shoots a partridge, a 
woodcock, or a pheasant, he gives it away." 

(2) When a pronoun cannot fully represent its antecedent in gender, 
the masculine pronoun is to be preferred; as, "No boy or girl could do 
his work better." 

(3) The pronoun it, is often preferable to represent the name of a 
young child or of an animal whose sex is not definitely distinguished ; as, 
u The child sat by its mother." "The nightingale sings most sweetly 
when it sings in the night." 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 79 

(4) Masculine or feminine pronouns represent the names of inanimate 
objects personified. 

To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her invisible forms, she speaks 
A various language. 

(5) A collective noun conveying the idea of unity must be represented 
by a pronoun in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender ; 
as, "The mob swept everything in its way." A collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality must be represented by a plural pronoun, whose 
gender is determined by the sex of the objects denoted. 

(a) A collective noun conveys the idea of unity, when it refers to the 
objects as forming one whole ; and it conveys the idea of plurality, when 
it refers to the individuals of the group. 

290. Exercise. 

I. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving reasons : — 

(1) Many a man looks back on the days of youth with melan- 
choly regret. 

(2) The orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ears of 

hearers. 

(3) If we deprive an animal of instinct, will be unable to take 

care of . 

(4) If any member of the congregation wishes to connect 

with this church, will please come forward while the brethren 

sing. 

(5) I like the molasses, for tastes as good as honey. 

(6) The earth is my mother, and I will recline upon bosom. 

(7) To persecute a truly religious denomination will only make 

flourish better. 

(8) The government will have cause to change orders. 

(9) The cabinet seemed to be divided in sentiments. 

(10) The cabinet was distinguished for wise and distinguished 

measures. 

(11) Egypt was glad when they took their departure, for was 

afraid of them. 

(12) Every herb, every flower, and every animal shows the wisdom of 
Him who made -. 

(13) Every governor and magistrate does as thinks best. 

(14) If any boy or girl be absent, will have to go to the foot of 

the class. 



80 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(15) No man or woman is able to get rid of vices without a 

struggle. 

(16) Poverty and wealth have each own temptations. 

II. Fill the blanks with he, she, him, her, I, or me, and 

give the number of the rule that governs your selection : — 

(1) John and may go. 

(2) May John and go ? 

(3) Let John and go. 

(4) Let not boast that puts his armor on, but that takes 

it off. 

(5) He called Marion and . 

(6) that cometh to me., I will in no wise cast out. 

(7) Who ate the oranges ? It was . 

(8) If I were I would resist. 

(9) Was it I saw ? No ; it was . 

(10) They came with Harry and . 

(11) Harry and came with them. 

(12) She wants and to be good. 

(13) O, no, my child, 'twas not in war, 

And that kills a single man his neighbors all abhor. 

(14) Look at Lucy and ; we are running. 

(15) He thought to be . 

(16) that overcome th will I make a pillar in the temple. 

(17) We thought him to be . ' 

(18) He was thought to be . 

III. Fill blanks with we, us, they, and them, referring to 
rules : — 

(1) That is good for Americans. 

(2) It is not but whom he seeks to please. 

(3) Did you say that or were chosen ? 

(4) She told Helen and boys to speak plainly. 

(5) Let who are pure throw the first stone. 

(6) Let none touch it but who are clean. 

(7) It was whom you saw. 

(8) Could it have been who did the mischief ? 

(9) Whom did he want ? girls. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 81 

IV. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, and 
give the number of the rule that governs each selection. 

(1) did lie inquire for ? 

(2) For did he inquire ? 

(3) do men say that I am ? 

(4) do you think me to toe ? 

(5) do you think to toe me ? 

(6) does she wish you to toe ? 

(7) does she wish to toe ? 

V. Fill the blanks with who and whom, and state by 
number the rules employed. 

(1) He knew not they were. 

(2) He married a lady they say is very wealthy. 

(3) She married a man I know to toe worthless. 

(4) - do men say that I am ? 

(5) does he think me to toe ? 

(6) does he think to toe me ? 

(7) I saw the man I think is to deliver the oration. 

(8) do you think that he is ? 

(9) do you think him to toe ? 

(10) was he thought to toe ? 

(11) do you wish to see ? 

(12) ■ is it that you wish to see ? 

(13) He is the man I thought you to toe. 

(14) He is the man I thought to toe you. 

(15) He is the man was thought to toe you. 

(16) He is the man you were thought to toe. 

(17) did you inquire for ? 

(18) She is not the lady we supposed her to toe. 

(19) She is not the lady she was supposed to toe. 



82 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

291. We have already found that some objects differ so 
much that it is necessary to put them in different classes and 
to give them different names ; as, man, rose, tree. We may 
now observe also that objects belonging to the same class 
have different qualities or attributes, which it is often 
necessary for us to name ; and also that many times we wish 
to point out or refer to an object, without either naming its 
qualities or applying a proper name to it. Hence arises 
another part of speech called the Adjective, by which we 
may refer to an object or name its qualities. 

292. An Adjective is a word used to limit a noun or pro- 
noun so as to point out or refer to an object, or to name one 
of its qualities ; as, " this book," u four boys," " an apple " ; 
" large book," " lazy boy," " sweet apples." 

293. Rule X. — Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 

THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 

294. An adjective may modify a noun directly ; as, 
" The beautiful vase was broken." " I saw a green fence." 
" He is an industrious fellow " ; or it may be used to com- 
plete a copulative verb, usually the verb to be; as, "The 
vase was beautiful." " The fence was green." " The fellow 
is industrious." An adjective that thus completes the predi- 
cate and modifies the subject is called a Predicate Adjective. 
The pupil must understand that an adjective may be in 
the predicate, as a modifier of a predicate noun or of an 
object, without being a predicate adjective ; as, " She is a 



THE ADJECTIVE. 83 

tall girl." " He killed an ugly snake." A predicate adjec- 
tive always completes the predicate and limits the subject ; 
as, " The girl is tall" " The snake was ugly" 

RESULTANT OR FACTITIVE ADJECTIVE. 

295. We have seen that an adjective may limit the sub- 
ject through the verb ; we must observe also that an adjec- 
tive may limit the direct object in such a way as to be 
related to the verb; as, "He made the stick straight" 
" The medicine made him sick" Here the straightness of 
the stick and the sickness of him result from the actions 
expressed by the verbs. Such adjectives are therefore 
called Resultant Adjectives. They are sometimes called 
Factitive Adjectives. 

296. A noun may be similarly used ; it is then & factitive 
object, and should be parsed as an appositive ; as, " They 
chose her queen" "They appointed him clerk." When 
the verbs in such sentences are changed to the passive 
voice, the factitive adjectives and nouns become predicate 
-adjectives and nouns ; as, " The stick was made straight." 
"He was made sick." "She was chosen queen" " He was 
appointed clerk" 

297. Other parts of speech are frequently used as ad- 
jectives : — 

Noun ; " A silver spoon." " A mahogany table." " Pennsylvania oil." 

Pronoun : ' ' A she politician." 

Verb : " A would-be professor." " Spelling exercises." 

Adverb : " That far-away shore." 

Preposition : " The above statement." 

Conjunction : " The but clause." 

Interjection : " A farewell address. ' ' 

298. An adjective is often made up of two or more 
words joined by a hyphen ; as, " Sun-burnt hair," " love-lorn 



84 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

nightingale," " six-inch boards." Such are called Compound 
Adjectives. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

299. Since adjectives limit nouns in two ways, as illus- 
trated above, there arise the two general classes of adjec- 
tives — Descriptive to denote qualities of objects ; and Defini- 
tive to point out or refer to objects without denoting qualities. 

300. (1) A Descriptive Adjective is one that limits a noun 
so as to denote some quality of an object ; as, white, dreary, 
awful, ancient, beating, Parisian. 

301. (2) A Definitive Adjective is one that limits a noun 
so as to point out or refer to an object without denoting any 
of its qualities ; as, tjie, four, any, each, either, this, those, 
certain, several. 

SUB-CLASSES. 

302. Descriptive or Qualifying Adjectives have the three 

sub-classes, -— 

303. (1) Common, any ordinary quality word not derived 
from a proper name; as, "good fruit," "sweet oranges," 
" cold water," " honorable men," " amiable disposition," 
"virtuous women." 

304. (2) Proper, one derived from a proper name ; as, 
" Arabian Nights," " Grrecian armies," " Turkish despot- 
ism." 

305. Participial, one derived from a verb ; as, " throbbing 
hearts," " amusing stories," " twinkling stars," " consecrated 
spots," "defended rights," "deadened sensibility." 

306. Definitive or merely Limiting Adjectives have the 
thre-e sub-classes, — 

307. (1) Articles, A or An, and The. 

308. The is called the definite article, and A or An the 
indefinite article. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 85 

309. A is used before consonants, and An before vowels ; 
as, a man, a cow, an ape, an ox. 

310. (2) Pronominals, those that may be used substan- 
tively ; as, " Some were invited ; others were not ; but all 
were welcome." 

(a) It is better in most cases to supply the limited noun in parsing. 

(b) The following and some others are usually called pronominal 
adjectives: This, that, these, those; each, every, either, neither; much, 
little; some, all, such, own, any, none, one, both, other, another; certain, 
divers, else; former, latter, first, last. 

311. Pronominals are divided into four classes, — 

(1) Demonstratives ; as, this, that, these, those. 

(2) Distributives ; as, each, every, either, neither. 

(3) Indefinites ; as, all, any, some, few. 

(4) Interrogative ; as, which, what. 

312. (3) Numerals, those that suggest number. 

(a) Definite numerals; as, four, six, forty; fourth, sixth, fortieth; 
four-fold, six-fold, forty-fold. 

(b) Indefinite; as, several, few, many. 

313. The definite numerals are further divided into, — 

(1) Ordinals, those denoting orders in a series ; as, second, tenth. 

(2) Cardinals, those that state merely the number of objects ; as, two, 
ten. 

(3) Multiplicatives, those that tell how many fold ; as, two-fold, ten- 
fold. 

BEMAKKS ON DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

I. AETICLES. 

314. Articles are sometimes classed as a separate part of speech, but 
they differ so little from definitive adjectives that they should be parsed as 
such. 

315. The limits either singular or plural nouns ; A or An, except in a 
few cases, limits only singular nouns. 

316. The noun is used without an article when we wish to refer to a 
whole class ; as, " Man is mortal." The indefinite article is used when we 



86 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

wish to refer indefinitely to any one of a class; as, " A man is not so 
strong as an ox." And the definite article is used when we speak defi- 
nitely of a part of a class, one or more than one ; as, " The child broke the 
dishes." 

II. PRONOMINALS. 

(1) DEMONSTRATIVES. 

317. This points out an object that is near in time or place, or nearer 
than some other object referred to ;. as, " This book." " This pen (in my 
hand) is better than that (on the table before me)." " This age (Shake- 
speare's) was better than that (Homer's)." 

318. That points out an object distant in time or place, or not so near 
as another object referred to and pointed out by this. In many languages 
all the adjectives are inflected to agree with their nouns in person, num- 
ber, gender, and case, but this and that are the only English adjectives 
that are inflected, and these only to denote number. These and those are 
respectively the plurals of this and that. 

319. These should be used to point out more than one object when this 
would be used if there were but one ; those should be used to point out 
more than one object when that would be used if there were but one. Let 
the pupil thoroughly understand the use of these and those so that he may 
never misuse them. 

320. Former and latter are used to denote respectively the first and 
second of two objects previously mentioned. 

321. Both refers to two objects, either collectively; as, "Both boys 
can lift the log"; or individually ; as, " Both boys came." 

322. Same denotes the identical object ; as, " He is the same man." 

323. Yon or yonder may denote any distant object that is in view ; 
as, " Yon house." " Yonder mountain." 

(3) DISTRIBUTIVES. 

324. Bach in connection with other applies to one and also to the 
other of two objects; as, " Each helped the other." Each without the 
word other is individually applicable to more than two ; as, " Each soldier 
stood boldly for the right." 

325. Every denotes all of a class taken individually ; as, " Every man 
believed her." 

326. Either denotes one or the other of two; as, " Either \)o6k will 
satisfy me." 



THE ADJECTIVE. 87 

327. Neither means not either; as, "The man and his wife rose, but 
neither spoke." 

(3) INDEFINITES. 

328. All includes the whole class, and may denote that the objects 
are to be taken either collectively or individually; as, "All the men 
(working together) can lift the log." "All men are mortal." That is, 
individually they must die. 

329. Any is applicable to one or more of a class, or to a portion of a 
quantity ; as, " Any man or men." " Any coffee." 

330. Another, or other, means not the same as this, or not the same as 
these; as, " Another man." "Overmen." 

331. Certain denotes one or some of a class ; as, " A certain woman." 
" Certain women." 

332. Divers means different, various, or numerous; as, "Divers col- 
ors. " " Divers kinds. " " Divers places. ' ' 

333. Enough denotes a sufficiency; as, "Enough men." "Enough 
bread." 

334. Few denotes a small number; as, "Few were chosen." 

335. Little denotes a small portion ; as, " A little sleep." 

336. Many denotes a large number ; as, "Many crimes." 

337. Much denotes large in quantity ; as, "Much improvement." 

338. No means not any, either of number or quantity ; as, " No man." 
"No silver." 

339. None means not one, or not any. When one of a number is 
referred to, it is better to say no one ; when more than one, or a part of a 
quantity, use none; as, "None (of men) are here, or no one is here." 
" None (of bread) is left." 

340. One is generally used in connection with another; as, "They 
help one another." It is difficult to parse such a sentence as it stands. 
The meaning is, " Every one person helps another person." 

341. Own is used to express possession more emphatically ; as, "My 
own land." 

342. Several denotes any small number more than two ; as, " Several 
times." 

343. Some denotes number or quantity indefinitely ; as, " Some books." 
" Some wheat." 

344. Sundry means various ; as, " At sundry times." 

III. NUMERALS. 

345. A cardinal adjective answers the question, How many ? as, one, 
turn, three, four, etc. 



88 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

346. ^ n ordinal adjective answers the question, Which one in the 
series ? and may usually be known by its form ; as, first, second, third, 
fourth, etc. But an adjective is ordinal, regardless of its form, whenever 
it marks the position of an object in a series ; as, " Read page ten " ; or, 
" Read the tenth page." 

347. See the indefinite numerals, several, few, and many, under the 
indefinite pronominals, where they are commonly classed. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

348. Most qualities of objects exist in different degrees. 
Some men are wise ; others wiser ; and still others wisest. 
Some landscapes are beautiful; others more beautiful; 
others most beautiful. This difference in the degree of 
quality is expressed by a variation in the form of the 
adjective, called Comparison. 

349. Comparison is a variation in the form of the adjec- 
tive to express different degrees of quality ; as, long, longer, 
longest ; good, better, best ; profitable, more profitable, most 
profitable. 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

350. There are three degrees formed by the comparison 
of the adjective. 

351. The Positive is the simple form of the adjective, used 
when an object is not compared with any other ; as, Cold 
days, good deeds, practical lessons. 

352. The Comparative is the form of the adjective that 
expresses a higher or lower degree than the positive, used 
when two objects are compared; as, Colder days, better 
deeds, more practical lessons ; or, less cold days, less good 
deeds, less practical lessons. 

353. The Superlative is the form of the adjective that 
expresses the highest or lowest degree, used when any number 
of objects more than tivo are compared; as, Coldest days, 



THE ADJECTIVE. 89 

best deeds, most practical lessons ; or, least cold days, least 
good deeds, least practical lessons. 



KINDS OF COMPARISON. 

354. There are two kinds of comparison ; Ascending ; as, 

valuable, more valuable, most valuable ; and Descending ; as, 
valuable, less valuable, least valuable. 

METHODS OF COMPARISON. 

355. There are three methods of comparison, — 

(1) By different terminations ; as, loud, louder, loudest. 

(2) By different words ; as, bad, worse, worst. 

(3) By the prefixes, more, most ; less, least ; as, beautiful, 
more beautiful or less beautiful, most beautiful or least 
beautiful. 

356. Monosyllables are compared by changing the termination of the 
positive; as, loud, louder, loudest ; sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

357. Many dissyllables are compared like monosyllables ; as, happy, 
happier, happiest. ( Y after a consonant is changed to i before suffixing 
er or est.) 

358. Words of more than two syllables, and words of two syllables 
that could not be easily pronounced with er or est added to the positive, 
are compared by prefixing to the positive more or less for the comparative, 
and most or least for the superlative ; as, practicable, more practicable, 
most practicable; doubtful, less doubtful, least doubtful. In parsing, 
more, most, less, and least should not be separated from the following 
word. 

359. Descending comparison has but one method — by prefixing less 
and least. 

360. I n poetry monosyllables are often compared by prefixes ; as, " A 
form more fair, a face more sweet." 

361. The following adjectives are compared by differ- 
ent words, — 



90 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAK. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Bad, evil, or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Much or many, 


more, 


most. 


Little, 


less, or lesser, 


least. 



362. The following adjectives have irregular termi- 
nations : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Aft, 


after, 


aftermost. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest, or farthermost. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


hindermost, or hindmost. 


Late, 


later, or latter, 


latest, or last. 


Low, 


lower, 


lowest, or lowermost. 



363. The following adjectives are defective in their 
comparison : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Out (adv.), 


outer, utter, 


outermost, utmost. 


In (prep.), 


inner, 


innermost, inmost. 


Up (adv.), 


upper, 


uppermost, upmost. 





nether 


nethermost. 


Eld (obsolete), 


elder, 


eldest. 





under, 


undermost. 


Rear, 





rearmost. 



364. Adjectives representing qualities that cannot exist 
in different degrees, do not ordinarily admit of comparison. 
These include : — 



almighty 


extreme 


infinite 


safe 


certain 


fall 


lawful 


serene 


chief 


false 


leaden 


solid 


circular 


filial 


living 


sound 


conscious 


fluid 


natural 


square 


continual 


free 


paternal 


subject 


dead 


godly 


perfect 


supreme 


earthly- 


golden 


perpetual 


triangular 


empty 


gratuitous 


reverend 


true 


everlasting 


heavenly 


right 


universal 


external 


human 


royal 


void 



THE ADJECTIVE. 91 

(a) While the above words cannot logically be compared, it is not very- 
uncommon to find such rhetorical expressions as fuller, rounder, most 
certain, most extreme, etc., meaning, nearer full, nearer round, most nearly 
certain, etc. 

(b) In parsing such words, do not compare them unless the compara- 
tive or superlative forms are used. 

365. 1^ wiu De observed that the two kinds of comparison, ascending 
and descending, give us in reality five degrees for every adjective admitting 
of comparison; as, least cautious, less cautious, cautious, more cautious, 
most cautious. These five — or three, if the two comparatives be regarded 
as one, and the two superlatives as one — are the only degrees that can 
be expressed by regularly inflecting the adjective ; but by combining it 
with other words, the number of degrees expressed may be indefinitely 
increased; as, somewhat cautious, very cautious, unusually cautious, re- 
markably cautious, exceedingly cautious, too little cautious, a little too 
cautious, incautious, quite incautious. And after we exhaust all our 
combinations of words there are left a great many degrees of quality that 
cannot, and need not, be expressed, just as objects have a great many 
qualities not named at all by adjectives. 

366. The termination ish is sometimes given to some adjectives, form- 
ing what is called the diminutive degree, lower than the positive, and yet 
different from the lower comparative or the lower superlative ; as, reddish, 
bluish, greenish. 

367. Model for Parsing the Adjective. 

(1) Species. (5) Degree. 

(2) Class. (6) Construction. 

(3) Sub-class. (7) Rule. 

(4) Comparison. 

368. Parsing. 

(1) That old man was sick. 

That, adj., del, pronom., demon., and limits man, R. X. 

Old, adj., des., com., — old, older, oldest, — pos. degree, and limits man, 

R. X. 
Sick, adj. in the pred., des., com., — sick, sicker, sickest, — pos. degree, 

and limits man, R. X. 

Bemark. — The teacher may have the oral parsing of nouns and pro- 
nouns given according to abridged model. 



92 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

369. Selections. 
A. (1) The silent moon ascends the starry shy. 

(2) The weary traveller seeks a quiet rest. 

(3) The echoing hills gave back the rumbling thunder. 

(4) How many unkept promises and broken vows there 

(5) The summer breezes blow soft and cool. [are ! 

(6) The annual, autumnal, desolating fires have almost 
destroyed the well-timbered country. 

(7) Horses are as valuable as mules. 

(8) Homer was a greater poet than Virgil. 

(9) The sweetest flowers fringed the little stream. 

(10) On the grassy bank stood a tall, waving ash, sound 
to the very top. 

(11) There are two pear trees in the second row. 

(12) Who else came ? 

B. (1) A little learning is a dangerous thing ! 

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. 

(2) Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

(3) But he thought of his sister, proud and cold, 
And his mother, vain of her rank and gold. 

(4) The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

(5) How brilliant and mirthful the light of her eye, 
Like a star glancing out from the blue of the sky ! 

(6) There brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons imparadise the night. 

(7) Silver and gold have I none. 

(8) She cooked the steak rare. 

(9) They painted the fence green. 

(10) Ancient history is, for the greater part, a story filled with wildest 
fables and legends most incredible. 

(11) The hopeful mind and faithful heart 
Shall win and keep the better part. 

(12) The sun that brief December day 
Kose cheerless over hills of gray, 
And, darkly circled, gave at noon 

A sadder light than waning moon. — Whittier. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 93 

(13) Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, 

Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, 
Far from the fiery noon and eve's lone star, 
Sat gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone. 

(14) Oh, lone and lorn my lot ! 

To me the sunshine is a joy unknown ; 
In vain earth's lap with rarest flowers is strown — 
I crush, but see them not. 

370. Outline of the Adjective. 

la. Kinds. 
16. Descriptive, or Qualifying : Sweet, golden, beautiful, 
lc. Common : Good, sour, black. 
2c. Proper: Australian, Swiss. 

3c. Participial or Verbal: Running, broken, educated. 
2b. Definitive, or merely Limiting, adjectives : An ox. 
lc. Article. 
Id. Definite: The. 
2d. Indefinite. 

le. A, before a consonant. 
2e. An, before a vowel. 
2c. Numeral. 

Id. Indefinite ; as, several, few, many. 
2d. Definite. 

le. Cardinal : One, twenty, one hundred. 
2e. Ordinal : First, twentieth, one hundredth. 
Se. Multiplicative : Two-fold, three-fold, ten-fold. 
3c. Pronominal. 

Id. Distributive : Each, every, either, neither. 
2d. Demonstrative : This, that, these, those. 

3d. Interrogative : Which book will you have ? What reply did he 
make ? 

2a. Property or Comparison. 
16. Kinds, 
lc. Ascending. 
2c. Descending. 
26. Degrees, 
lc. Positive. 
2c. Comparative. 
3c. Superlative. 



94 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Sb. Methods. 

1c. By different terminations ; as, loud, louder, loudest. 
2c. By different words ; as, good, better, best. 

3c. By prefixes : more, most ; less, least ; as, honest, more honest or 
less honest ; most honest or least honest. 



SYNTAX OP ADJECTIVES. 

371. As to .the manner of modification, there are three 
kinds of adjectives, — Attributive, Predicate, and Resultant, 
or Factitive. 

372. An Attributive Adjective is one that modifies its 
noun directly. It may modify a noun in any construc- 
tion ; as, " Grood men are valuable associates for young 
people." 

(a) The term attributive is applied here only because it is in common 
use, not because it is a good one. Any adjective that expresses an attri- 
bute is an attributive adjective. 

373. A Predicate Adjective is one that completes the 
predicate and limits the subject ; as, " The children are 
tired." " We did not want the boys to be sick." 

374. A Resultant, or Factitive, Adjective is one that 
modifies the object in such a manner as to express a quality 
that is the result of the verb's action ; as, " Much learning 
hath made thee mad." " They painted the fence green." 

375. A participial or infinitive phrase or a clause may be modified by 
a predicate adjective ; as, " To see the stars is delightful." " That he will 
come is not certain.'''' Sometimes the adjective modifies an entire sen- 
tence attributively ; as, " Contrary to what commonly occurs, he has not 
come back any more." 

376. An adjective sometimes seems to modify another adjective. It 
must then be parsed as an adverb, or the two must be parsed together as 
one adjective; as, "The iron is red hot." " She wore a deep blue dress." 



THE ADJECTIVE. 95 

377. An adjective frequently modifies a noun as modified by some ' 
other word ; as, " We keep no cheap goods." Here, no modifies goods as 
modified by cheap. 

378. The adjectives like, nigh, near, and next are frequently followed 
by objectives. It is better, in such cases, to call these words prepositions 
governing the following nouns or pronouns; as, "She is not like me." 
" He lives near usV Some grammarians prefer to call these words adjec- 
tives or adverbs, and supply the preposition to to govern the following 
substantive. 

379. Some adjectives are frequently used substantively; as, "The 
good, the bad, the indifferent.'''' " The sublime and the beautiful.'''' 

380. A noun is often used adjectively ; as, "A gold ring." "The 
barn door." "The marriage act." 

381. Exercises. 

I. Write sentences in which old, cold, long, infirm, reck- 
less, rich, rare, right, strong, mighty, faithless, innocent, 
beautiful, are predicate adjectives. 

II. Write sentences in which the following are result- 
ant, or factitive, adjectives : — famous, furious, frantic, wild, 
worthy, wise, mindful, mad, mighty, sick, well, angry, weak, 
strong, acceptable, beautiful, agreeable, patient, intelligent, 
intelligible. 

382. All liabilities to error in the use of adjectives may be 
named under the following heads, — Choice, Number, Com- 
parison, Position. 

383. (1) Choice. 

Care should be taken to select the adjective that most 
appropriately expresses the meaning intended. 

(a) See Dictionary and a book on synonyms for the adjectives awful, 
lovely, nice, splendid, elegant, terrible, grand, bad. 

(&) Do not use: Good tor well; less for fewer; or both with same or 
alike ; as, both the same, both alike. 

(c) Never use an adjective for an adverb, or an adverb for an adjec- 
tive ; as, " Extreme bad weather." " She looks so sweetly." 



96 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAB. 

384. (2) Number. 

(a) Never use them for those. 

(b) Do not use these or those instead of this and that before such nouns 
as kind, sort, molasses. 

(c) After numerals, the words pair, couple, dozen, hundred, thousand, 
etc., need not take the plural form; as, "Four pair of boots." " Five 
dozen peaches." "Six couple of dancers." "Four hundred head of 
sheep.' ' 

385. (3) Comparison. 

The comparative degree is used when only two objects are 
compared ; the superlative when there are more than two ; 
as, " He is the taller of the two." " She is more beautiful 
than her sister." " Socrates was the wisest of the Athe- 
nians." " She is the loveliest of women." 

386. Rules. 

I. The superlative degree is used when the object to which 
it relates is one of those with which it is compared ; as, " Eve 
was the fairest of women." 

II. The comparative degree is used when the object to 
which it relates is not included among those with which it is 
compared ; as, " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters." 

(a) It would not be correct to say either Eve was fairer than any 
woman; or, Fve ivas the fairest of her daughters ; because the first expres- 
sion implies either that she was not a woman, or that she was fairer than 
herself ; and the second implies that she was one of her daughters. 

(b) In a series of co-ordinate adjectives differently compared, it is 
generally more elegant to place the shorter ones first ; as, " She is younger, 
less hateful, and more beautiful than her sister. ' ' 

(c) Avoid : (1) Double comparatives and superlatives ; as, more wiser, 
most unkindest, etc. 

(2) Comparative and superlative forms of incomparable adjectives ; as, 
extremest, chief est, truest, more perfect, less universal. 

387. (4) Position. 

An adjective commonly comes just before the word it 
limits, but adjectives may follow their nouns : — 



THE ADJECTIVE. 97 

(1) When used to complete the predicate; as, u The way was long, 
the wind was cold." 

(2) When the adjective is modified by a prepositional or infinitive 
phrase ; as, " His mother, vain of her rank and gold." 

(3) When the adjective modifies a pronoun ; as, " Who else came ? " 

(4) When the adjective is resultant or factitive; as, "They made the 
stick straight." 

(5) In poetry ; as, " He thought of his sister, proud and cold." 

(a) There are several other cases in which adjectives follow their 
nouns, but these are the principal ones. 

388. When the noun is limited by both an ordinal and a cardinal 
adjective, there is a question as to which should come first. Here author- 
ities have not agreed. Shall we say, the first three, or the three first f If 
we insist upon a strictly literal interpretation of the language, we are 
compelled to choose between two absurdities. It would be absurd to 
speak of the first three unless there was also a second three ; and it is 
absurd to speak of the three first, for there is never but one first. Ordi- 
narily, I think, a careful critic would have to allow either expression, but 
at present the best usage seems to put the ordinal first. But sometimes 
either is preferable to the other, according to the meaning intended ; thus, 
if there are two single columns of boys, and we wish to refer to the lead- 
ers, we should say the two first boys ; but if there is one double column 
of boys, and we wish to refer to the first couple, we should say the first 
two boys. 

389. Adjectives frequently modify nouns understood; as, u Many 
[persons] are called, but few [persons] are chosen." 



98 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE VERB. 

390. The'Verh is that part of speech which is used to assert 
or assume action, being, or state ; as, " Henry plows" "Troy 
was" "The house stands;" "We want Henry to plow" 
" They wanted Troy to be" "We want the house to stand" 

(a) In the first three sentences the verbs "plows," "was," and 
" sta?ids," assert; but in the last three the verbs " to plow" "to be," 
and " to stand" assume, respectively, action, being, state. 

(b) Here the word assert is taken in a very general sense, including 
every kind of predication and interrogation. 

(c) We can say of the verb what can be said of no other part of 
speech — that without it a sentence cannot exist. 



CLASSIFICATION 01 VEKBS. 

391. Verbs are classified upon five different bases, — 

392. (1) According to their relation to subjects. 

By observing the sentences, " I study" "He studies" 
" They study" we see that the form of the verbs is modi- 
fied by the person and number of the subject. They are 
therefore called finite verbs, because they are limited or 
modified in form according to the person and number of 
their subjects. That is what we mean when we say that 
finite verbs have person and number. 

393. Finite Verbs are those whose form is modified by the 
person and number of their subjects. 

394. But, in the following sentences, it will be seen that 
the form of the italicized verbs remains the same, regard- 
less of the person and number of their subjects ; " She 



THE VERB. 99 

wants me to plow." " She wants him to plow" " She wants 
them to plow" " She saw me plowing" " She saw him jpZow- 
m#." " She saw them plowing" They are therefore called 
infinite verbs, because they are not limited or modified in 
form, according to the person and number of their subjects. 
That is what we mean when we say that infinite verbs do 
not have person and number. 

395. Infinite Verbs are those whose form is not modified by 
the person and number of their subjects. 

396. The two forms of the infinite verb illustrated above are respec- 
tively the infinitive and participle. 

(a) For full explanation of infinitives and participles see section 657. 

397. (2) According to their relation to objects. 

In all such sentences as " The boy plows the field," " The 
man bought an ox," it will be seen that the action expressed 
by the verbs is represented as going across from the subject 
to the object. Such verbs are therefore called transitive 
verbs, because transitive means to go across. 

398. Transitive Verbs are those which represent action as 
going across from an agent to an object. 

399. But in such sentences as, "The dew sparkles" "She 
walks gracefully," the action is represented by the verbs as 
beginning and ending with the subject ; or, it does not go 
across from the subject to any object. Such verbs are 
called intransitive verbs, because intransitive means not to 
go across. 

400. Intransitive Verbs are those which represent action, 
being, or state, as pertaining wholly to agents. 

401. Verbs which are usually transitive are often used so as to refer 
to no definite object; as, "Henry studies." "Mary reads." In such 
sentences the verbs should be parsed as intransitive. But the object need 



100 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

not always be expressed for the verb to be transitive. Thus, in " He is 
the man I saw," saw has no object expressed, but it is transitive, because 
its object, ivhom, is clearly implied. In the sentence, " Dora studies, but 
Laura does not," both verbs are intransitive, having reference to their 
subjects only ; but in the sentence, " Dora studies algebra, but Laura does 
not," the verbs are both transitive, because they represent the action of 
the subject as passing over to the definite object, algebra. 

402. Verbs usually transitive are often intransitive; as, "The field 
plows easily." " The instrument tunes easily." This is rather a passive 
signification of such verbs, the sentence meaning, "The field is easily 
plowed." " The instrument is easily tuned." 

403. Verbs usually intransitive are often transitive. (1) When they 
have objects similar in signification to themselves; as, "He dreamed a 
dream." "She sang a song." "That man lived a righteous life." It 
seems to be almost the universal custom among grammarians to speak of 
such as the above as being "intransitive verbs that govern objects," but 
such expressions very plainly involve a contradiction of terms, and should 
be rejected. By definition, any verb is transitive if it represents the 
action of the subject as terminating upon an object, no matter about the 
signification of the object. It will never be found necessary to depart 
from this definition, and any attempt to do so will be productive of noth- 
ing but confusion. (2) When used in a causative sense ; as, " Paul trots 
his pony." "The general' marched his armies." (3) In a poetic sense; 
as, " Eyes looked love to eyes." " She can look daggers." 

404. A transitive verb expresses action only ; an intransitive verb 
expresses action, being, or state. 

405. Sometimes an intransitive verb in the passive form is made tran- 
sitive by being compounded with a preposition ; as, " The house was dis- 
posed of.'' 1 "We were laughed at." "The property had been taken 
possession of." 

406. 1^ ma Y De allowable in a few cases to regard a preposition or an 
adverb as a part of the verb in the active form ; ' ' We should never put 
off duty. " " The man came to." "He tried to get up." But this should 
never be done except when the compound is equivalent to a single word, 
and could not be separated into different parts of speech without marring 
the meaning. 

407. In such sentences as, "She laughed herself hoarse," "He slept 
himself weary," "They drank themselves drunk," no very satisfactory 
disposition can be given of the italicized words following the intransitive 
verbs ; but it seems preferable to parse any such word as the subject of 
the infinitive to be understood. 



THE VERB. 101 

408. (3) According to their completeness of predication. 

The two sentences, " He steals," and " He is a thief," 
may convey precisely the same meaning. But it will be 
observed that in the first, the predication is completed by 
the verb, "steals" which both asserts and expresses the 
attribute of the subject; while in the second, the verb, 
" is" does not complete the predicate, but only asserts the 
attribute which is expressed by another word, " thief" 
" Steals " is a verb of complete predication, and because 
it contains the attribute which it asserts, it is called an 
attributive verb ; "is" is a verb of incomplete predication, 
and because it only couples to its subject an attribute 
which is expressed by another word, it is called a copulative 
verb. 

409. The literal meaning of the word copula is to couple, to fasten 
together. 

410. There are few difficulties in the study of grammar more fre- 
quently met with, or more perplexing both to the teacher and to the 
pupil, than those pertaining to the copulative verb. 

411. Attributive Verbs are those which express the attri- 
butes they assert or assume of their subjects. 

412. Copulative Verbs are those which assert or assume of 
their subjects attributes that are expressed by other words. 

413. All transitive verbs may in one sense be considered verbs of 
incomplete predication ; but they differ from copulative verbs in this, that 
which completes a copulative verb is ahvays an attribute of the subject, but 
that which completes a transitive verb is not an attribute of the subject, 
but an object. Whatever completes a copulative verb is, therefore, called 
an attributive complement; as, " Sugar is sweet " " George is & farmer" ; 
and whatever completes a transitive verb is called an objective complement ; 
as, " Martha reads the Bible." 

414. The Complement of a copulative verb is always a noun or an 
adjective, or some expression so used. It may be a participle, an infini- 
tive, a phrase, or a clause. (Let pupils illustrate.) 



102 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

415. The Predicate always is a verb, or contains one, since it is the 
only part of speech that can predicate. 

416. Many verbs in the passive voice may be nsed as copulas ; as, 
" She xoas considered honest." " I was elected chairman." 

417. Although the verb to be is the only pure copula, it is often purely 
attributive. It is copulative when it asserts an attribute of the subject, 
and attributive when it denotes merely to exist. In " Whatever is, is right" 
the first is is attributive, and the second copulative. In the two follow- 
ing sentences all the verbs are attributive : " Troy was, but is no more." 
" What was, is no more, and what is, will not be." 

418. How to distinguish a Copulative Verb. 

It is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, in isolated sentences, 
to distinguish the passive voice from the copulative verb to be with a 
predicate adjective or participle. For example : in such sentences as 
" The pitcher was broken," " The house was covered," " The field was 
plowed," " That room was papered," etc., we are unable to determine the 
meaning, and therefore cannot be positive concerning their disposition. 
Each may mean one or the other of two things, which would be made 
evident by the connection in which it is used. Thus, " The field was 
plowed" may refer to a particular act, in which case, was plowed is a 
passive verb ; or it may simply assert the condition of the field, in which 
case, was is copulative, and plowed, a predicate adjective. 

419. Every Declarative Sentence may be regarded as the An- 
swer to a Question ; and before we can dispose of the above sentences, 
we must know the questions which they answer. Thus, they may be the 
respective answers to the questions, " Wliat was done by the cat?", 
" What was done with the boards ? " " What was done with the plow ?" 
" What was done with the paper ?" If so, was broken, was covered, was 
plowed, and was papered are passive verbs, referring to some act which 
took place in some time, in some manner, and by some actor. But if 
the sentences are intended to answer the questions, " Why did you not 
buy the pitcher ?" u Why did he prefer to sleep in the house?" " Why 
did you not walk through the field?" " Why did she like that room 
best?" then in each was is a copula, asserting of the subject the con- 
dition expressed by the adjective which follows. 

420. ^ tne verD i s niodified by a phrase, we may know usually that 
it is the act which is referred to, and not the condition of the subject. 
Thus, in " The child's heart was broken by its mother's death " was 
broken is evidently a passive verb, but without the phrase, its construc- 
tion would be indeterminate. But in u My buggy has been broken for 



THE VERB. 103 

three months," we know that has been is the copula, and broken the 
attribute. 

421. Classes of Copulas. 

The only pure copula is some form of the verb to be, but many other 
verbs are used as impure copulas. In " She is happy" is is purely copu- 
lative, having no other use than to assert happy of she. In the sentences, 
"He seems honest,'''' " They appear well,'''' etc. , the verbs are almost purely 
copulative ; but in the sentence, " He came hurrying," hurrying seems to 
be almost purely adverbial in its use. And between these two extremes 
we have all the different varieties of predication by copulas. " They look 
tired." "He sits erect." " The apple tastes sweet." "He came attended." 
"She walks a queen." In each of these examples the complement is 
partly adjective and partly adverbial in construction. In the last sen- 
tence, for example, the meaning is partly that she has a queenly walk, 
and partly that her walk shows her to be a queen. 

422. I n such expressions as " She seems to be happy," " They appear 
to be good," etc., the copulas are said to be double or complex. 

423. Uses of the Verb To Be. 

It may be well to note in passing that the verb to be has three distinct 
uses : one as an auxiliary, as, " The man was playing with the children," 
and two as a principal verb, either attributive or copulative, which are 
explained above. 

424. The Construction of a Phrase may often be determined by 
determining the construction of the single word which may take its place. 
Thus, "He is without a home" is the same as "He is homeless." But 
many times phrases which are adverbial in construction are incorrectly 
regarded as predicate adjectives ; as "He is in the house." In this sen- 
tence, is is attributive, and in the house is an adverbial element. Whenever 
such phrases following the verb to be express attributes that exist in the 
subjects, they are used as predicate adjectives ; but this cannot always be 
determined from the form of the sentences. Thus, "He is in health" 
means "Health is in him." Is is copulative, and in health is the attri- 
bute. But the sentence of exactly the same form, "He is in Texas" 
does not mean "Texas is in him." Is is attributive, and in Texas 
adverbial. 

425. Any attributive verb may be expanded into a copula and a 
complement : " She giggles " = " She is a giggler"; ' ' He owns the farm " 
= "He is the owner of the farm" ; "Pay your debts" — "Be thou the 
payer of thy debts." 



104 COMMON SCHOOL GEAMMAE. 

426. (4) According to their form. 

Certain forms or parts of the verb are called Principal 
Parts, because it is from these that all the other parts are 
obtained. The principal parts are called : — 

427. Present Indicative : the simple form of the verb, or 
the form always found in the English dictionary ; as, see, 
plow, am. 

428. Past Indicative : the form of the verb used to repre- 
sent past time indefinitely ; as, saw, plowed, was. 

429. Perfect Participle : the form of the verb that expresses 
time more definitely than the Past Indicative, by relating it 
to some other time, either past, present, or future, implied by 
the sentence ; as, seen, plowed, been. 

430. The above examples show that some verbs form 
their past indicative and perfect participle by changing 
the ending of the present indicative to ed; as, plow, 
plowed, plowed; move, moved, moved; plant, planted, 
planted. These are called regular verbs. 

431. Regular Verbs are those that form their Past Indica- 
tive and Perfect Participle by changing the ending of the 
Present Indicative to ed. 

432. Irregular Verbs are those that do not form their Past 
Indicative and Perfect Participle by changing the ending of 
the Present Indicative to ed. 

433. Irregular verbs are of three kinds : — 

434. Complete : those having a full set of principal parts ; 
as, write, wrote, written. 

435. Defective : those lacking some of the principal parts ; 
as, beware, ought, quoth. 

436. Redundant: those having more than a sufficiency of 
principal parts ; as, eat, strike, cleave. 

437. Some grammarians name also the present active infinitive and 
the present active participle as principal parts. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



105 



LIST OF IEEEGULAE VERBS. 

438. The following list contains most of the irregular verbs in the 
language. Those in italics are obsolete, or now but little used. Those 
marked with an r may also be used as regular verbs ; and, when the R is 
in heavy type, it indicates that the regular form is preferable. 



Pres. Ind. 


Past Ind 


Per. Part. 


Pres. Ind. 


Past Ind 


Per. Part. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Chide 


chid /cMdde, 


Am 


was 


been 






L chid 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Awake 


awoke, r 


. awaked 


Cleave a 


( clove, 
I cleft 


cloven, 


Bake 


baked 


baked, baken 


(to split) 


cleft 


Bear (to 


loore,bare 


born 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


bring foi 


th) 




Clothe 


.clad, R. 


clad, R. 


Bear 


bore, & are borne 


Come 


came 


come • 


(to carry) 




Cost 


cost 


cost 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Bend 


bent, r. 


bent, r. 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Bereave 


bereft, r. 


bereft, r. 


Dare 2 


durst, R. 


dared 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


(to venture) 




Bet 


bet, r. 


bet, r. 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt, r. 


Bless 


blest, R. 


blest, R. 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Dive 


dove, r. 


dived 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Do 


did 


done 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Dream 


dreamt, r. dreamt, r. 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Dress 


drest, R. 


drest, R. 


Break 


f broke, 
I brake 


broken, 


Drink 


drank 


drank, drunk 




broke 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Dwell 


dwelt, r 


dwelt, r. 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Build 


built, r. 


built, r. 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Burn 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Find 


found 


found 


Catch 


caught, r 


caught, r. 


Flee 


fled 


fled 



1 Cleave, to adhere, is regular. 2 Dare, to challenge, is regular. 



106 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



Pi-es. Ind. 


Past Ind 


. Per, Part. 


Pres. Ind. 


Past Ind 


. Per. Part. 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Meet 


met 


met 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Pass 


past, R. 


past, R. 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Get 


got 


got, gotten 


Pen 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 


Gild 


gilt, r. 


gilt, r. 


(to inclose) 




Gird 


girt, r. 


girt, r. 


Put 


put 


put 


Give 


gave 


given 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Go 


went 


gone 


Rap 


rapt, R. 


rapt, R. 


Grave 1 


graved 


graven 


Read 


read 


read 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Hang 2 


hung 


hung 


Ride 


rode 


ridden, rode. 


Have 
Hear 


had 
heard 


had 
heard 


Ring 


/rang, | 
I rung / 


rung 


Heave 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r. 


Rive 


rived 


riven, r. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Run 


ran, run 


run 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Hold 


held 


held, holden 


Say 


said 


said 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


See 


saw 


seen 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Kneel 


knelt, r. 


knelt, r. 


Seethe 


sod, R. 


sodden, R. 


Knit 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Know 


knew 


known 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Lade 


laded 


laden, r. 


Set 


set 


set 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Lead 


led 


led 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, R. 


Leave 


left 


left 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 


Lean 


leant, R. 


leant, R. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R. 


Leap 


leapt, R. 


leapt, R. 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Shine 


shone, r 


shone, r. 


Let 


let 


let 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Lie (recline) lay 


lain 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Light 


lit, R. 


lit, R. 


Show 


showed 


shown, r. 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Shrink 


( shrunk, ' 
I shrank 


^shrunk 


Make 


made 


made 




Mean 


meant 


meant 


Shred 


shred 


shred 



1 Engrave is regular. 



• Hang, to take life by hanging, is regular. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



107 



Pres. Ind. 


Past Ind. 


Per. Part. 


Pres. Ind. 


Past Ind. 


Per. Pan. 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


String 


strung 


strung 


Sing 


f sang, | 
I sung J 


sung 


Strive 
Strow 


strove 
strowed 


striven 
strown, r. 


Sink 


j sunk, ") 
\sank j 


sunk 


Swear 


J swore, ) 
<■ sware f 


sworn 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat, r. 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, r. 


Slide 
Sling 
Slink 


slid 
f slung, | 
I slang i 

slunk 


slidden, slid 

slung 

slunk 


Swim 

Swing 
Take 


( swam, \ 
I swum > 

swung 

took 


swum 

swung 
taken 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Tell 


told 


told 


Speak 


f spoke, ") 
I spake f 


spoken 


Think 
Thrive 


thought 
throve 


thought 
thriven, R. 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Spin 


| spun, | 
\span i 


spun 


Tread 


f trod, 
I trode 


trodden, 
trod 


Spit 


spit, spat spit 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R. 


Split 


split 


split 


Wake 


woke 


woke, r. 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Spring 


f sprang, | 
I sprung J 


sprung 


Weave 
Wed 


wove 
wed 


woven 
wed, r. 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Stay- 


staid, R. 


staid, R. 


Wet 


wet, r. 


wet, r. 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Whet 


whet, r. 


whet, r. 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Win 


won 


won 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Stride 


j strode, 
I strid 


stridden, 


Work 


wrought, r 


. wrought, r. 


KJ t>A lvlv 


strid 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 


Strike 


struck -j 


struck, 
stricken 


Write 


wrote 


written 



A number of regular verbs are sometimes spelled in an abbreviated 
form, with t instead of ed ; as spelt, spilt, learnt, smelt, blent, spoilt, crept, 
knelt. Call such verbs irregular. 

Every one who speaks our language should master our irregular verbs ; 
for it is in the use of these that arise a multitude of the grossest errors. 



108 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



STRONG VERBS AND WEAK VERBS. 

439. Originally all our verbs were irregular ; but there has been and 
still is a tendency for them to become regular. Those that have yielded 
to the tendency, regular verbs, are called iveaJc verbs, and those that have 
withstood the tendency, irregular verbs, are called strong verbs. 

440. (5) According to their rank. 

From the sentences, "I plow," "I can plow," "I will 
plow," " I must plow," we see that the action is expressed 
by the verb, plow, and that the verbs, can, will, must, 
are used to modify, in some way, the manner of the 
expression. Because they are used thus to aid other 
verbs, they are called auxiliary verbs ; while verbs that 
may be used either with or without auxiliaries are called 
principal verbs. 

441. Auxiliary Verbs are those used in the conjugation of 
other verbs. 

442. Principal Verbs are those that may be used either with 
or without auxiliaries. 

443. The auxiliaries are be and have in all their forms ; do, did; may, 
might; can, could; must; will, would; shall, should. 

444. B e an( i have in all their forms ; do, did, ivoidd, and will, are often 
used as principal verbs ; as, "I do the work." " He did it." " I would 
that all men were honest." " He willed me his property." 

445. An auxiliary verb may express, — 

(1) Progression ; as, "The men are building the barn." 

(2) Passivity; as, " The bowl was broken." 

(3) Time; as, "They were talking" (past). "They are talking" 
(present). "They will talk," (future). 

(4) Emphasis ; as, " You did tell me." " You do have it." 

(5) Power or Ability ; as, "I can assist you." " I could not see him." 

(6) Completion ; as, " I have finished it." " I had not heard him." 

(7) Permission; as, "You may come in." 

(8) Probability or Possibility; as, "It may rain before night." 
" You may die to-day." 



THE VERB. 109 

(9) Reasonableness ; as, " The question might be asked. How he hap- 
pened to be there." That is, it would be reasonable to ask. 

(10) Compulsion; as, "You shall pay me." "He shall obey." 

(11) Necessity ; as, " We must suffer the consequences." 

(12) Duty ; as, " We should be respectful to the aged." 

(13) Willingness ; as, " I would pay you if I could." 

(14) Adaptation; as, " This will do.'''' 

(15) Tendency ; as, "The bloom of youth will fade away." 

(16) Interrogation; as, "Do you believe her?" "Shall I assist 
you ? " This idea is expressed by the position of the auxiliary. 

(17) Determination, Promise, or Command; as, "I will have it." 
" You shall have your money." " Thou shalt not steal. 1 '' 

USES OF THE AUXILIARIES. 

446. Do, in the present, and did, in the past, are used 
principally for emphasis ; as, " You do have the money." 
"I did give it to you." 

447. Can, in the present, and could, in the past, express 
the power or ability of the agent to perforin the act ; as, 
"1 can do the work." " She could fill my position." 

448. May, in the present, and might, in the past, express 
liberty or permission ; as, " You may stay." " It might be 
done." 

(a) Might sometimes expresses possibility ; as, " It might have been." 
May often expresses probability ; as, " She may be sick." 

(b) May is placed before the subject to ask a question or express a 
wish ; as, " May I go ? " " May you always be happy." 

(c) Can is often incorrectly used for may ; as, " Can I use your 
book ? " " Can the children play with me ? " 

449. Must expresses necessity — physical, intellectual, 
or moral ; as, " That star must be above the horizon to- 
night." " If you admit his premises, you must accept his 
conclusion." " We must tell him the truth." 

SHALL, SHOULD ; WILL, WOULD. 

450. There are, perhaps, no four words in the language 
more frequently misused than shall, should, will, and would. 



110 COMMON SCHOOL QRAMMAR. 

Even our very best writers are* sometimes guilty of using 
will for shall, or ivould for should ; but carelessness is the 
only excuse that can be offered for such a blunder. 

451. Rules. 

(1) Shall, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the 
second and third, it expresses a promise, command, or de- 
termination, of the speaker. " I shall know presently." 
" You shall have the reward." " Thou shalt not steal." 
" The nation shall be free." 

452. (2) Will, in the first person, not only foretells, but 
expresses a promise or determination of the speaker ; in the 
second and third, it only foretells. " I will pay you." " I 
will have my pay." " You will be pleased with the book." 
" He will come to-morrow." 

453. (3) When the sense demands such a change in 
the mode or tense, use should for shall, and would for will. 
" We would assist you if we could." " You should try 
again." 

454. I n Interrogative sentences shall denotes that the act is under 
the volition or control of something external to the subject, and will 
implies that the act is under the control of the subject. " Shall I go ? " 
" Shall you go ? " " Shall he go ? " " Will you go ? " " Will he go ? " 

455. Will can never be used literally in the first person, for no one 
can be supposed to know the speaker's will better than he knows it. But 
by a very common and very forcible rhetorical figure, will in the first 
person may be used with fine effect. The figure is Interrogation, accord- 
ing to which a sentence having the form of a question is in reality a very 
positive declaration. If the question contains a negative particle, it is 
generally intended to imply an affirmative answer; but without such a 
particle it suggests a negative answer. Thus, " Will I not demand my 
money?" means, I certainly will demand my money; and " Will I tol- 
erate his slander ? " means, I certainly will not tolerate his slander. 

456. J^M is often used in the third person simply to express a gen- 
eral truth more emphatically than it could be expressed by the present 
tens© of the verb ; as, " Accidents will happen." " Flowers will die." 



THE VERB. Ill 

457. When the verb is in the subjunctive mode, shall denotes nothing 
but futurity ; as, "If he shall leave before Monday' 1 ; but " He shall leave 
before Monday," expresses the determination of the speaker. 

458. Many sentences in which will or would is correctly used require 
shall or should when we introduce an adjective or an adverb to express 
the additional idea expressed by will ox would. Thus, the sentence, "I 
will grant your request," expresses the idea of futurity, and also the addi- 
tional idea of the speaker's pleasure ; but when we introduce an adjective 
or an adverb to express the speaker's pleasure, will should be changed to 
shall; as, "I shall be happy to grant your request," or, U I shall gladly 
grant your request. " "I will be happy to grant your request," implies 
that it would require an effort for the speaker to be happy. 

459. General Rules. 

All that has been said concerning these four auxiliaries 
may be summed up in the two general rules, — 

(1) Shall or should represents the act or state as indepen- 
dent of the volition or control of that which is represented by 
the subject of the verb. 

(2) Will or would represents the act or state as indepen- 
dent of the volition or control of the speaker, unless he is 
also represented by the subject of the verb. 

460. The student should accustom himself to observing thoughtfully 
both his own language and that of others, for the purpose of determining 
whether the act to be expressed is to be represented as under the control 
of the speaker, of that which is represented by the subject of the verb, or 
of something different from either. 

461. The following quotation is from Kichard Grant White: "The 
radical signification of will (Anglo-Saxon willan) is purpose, intention, 
determination ; that of mall (Anglo-Saxon sceal, ought) is obligation. I 
will do, means, I purpose doing, — I am determined to do. i" shall do 
means, radically, I ought to do ; and as a man is supposed to do what 
he sees he ought to do, I shall do came to mean, I am about doing — to 
be, in fact, a mere announcement of future action, more or less remote. 
But so, you shall do, means, radically, you ought to do ; and therefore, 
unless we mean to impose an obligation, or to announce an action on the 
part of another person over whom we claim some control, shall, in speak- 
ing of the mere future voluntary action of another person, is inappro- 



112 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

priate ; and we therefore say you will, assuming that it is the volition of 
the other person to do thus or so. Hence, in merely announcing future 
action, we say, I or we shall; you, he, or they will; and, in declaring 
purpose on our own part ; or on the part of another, obligation, or unavoid- 
able action, which we mean to control; — we say, I or we will; you, he, 
or they shall. 11 

462. Examples. 

(1) He shall do it. (Speaker's determination, or promise.) 

(2) You shall do it. (Speaker's determination, or promise.) 

(3) I shall do it. (Mere futurity.) 

(4) He will do it. (Mere futurity.) 

(5) You will do it. (Futurity, or entreaty.) 

(6) I will do it. (Determination. ) 

463. Fill the following blanks with shall or will, and give 
reasons for your selection : — 

(1) I be the loser in that trade. 

(2) I be drowned ; nobody help me. 

(3) I be punished if I do wrong. 

(4) If you mistreat a friend, you regret it. 

(5) If you mistreat me, you regret it. 

(6) It probably rain to-day. 

(7) I assist you ? 

(8) If you favor me, I be obliged. 

(9) He not do it ; we not allow it. 

(10) you have this coffee, or I drink it ? 

(11) If he be in time, he accept the position. 

(12) he accompany you ? 

464. Fill the following blanks with should or would, and 
give reasons for your selection : — 

(1) I not be able to repeat it correctly. 

(2) I pay him to-day, if he demand it. 

(3) I not think she do such a thing. 

(4) We be pleased, if you favor us. 

(5) He pay his debts, if he get his pension. 

(6) We do unto others as we have others do unto us. 

(7) He was afraid that he be hurt. 

(8) He was afraid that his father commit suicide. 



THE VERB. 113 

465. Explain the force of the auxiliaries in the follow- 
ing : — 

(1) Will you give thanks, sweet Kate, or else shall I ? 

(2) Will it be dark before you reach the tower ? 

(3) What shall I do ? 

(4) Then wilt thou not be loth 

To leave this paradise, but shalt possess 
A paradise within thee. — Milton. 

(5) Shall I, wasting in despair, 
Die because a woman's fair ? 
If she love me, then believe 

I will die ere she shall grieve. — Wither. 

(6) If she hate me, then believe 

She shall die ere I will grieve. — Ben Jonson's Parody on the above. 

(7) This child I to myself will take ; 
She shall be mine, and I will make 

A lady of my own ; 
The stars of midnight shall be dear 
To her ; and she shall lean her ear 

In many a secret place, 
Where rivulets dance their wayward round, 
And beauty born of murmuring sound 

Shall pass into her face. — Wordsworth. 

466. Try each of the auxiliaries, do, be, have, may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should, shall, will, in each of the 
following blanks, and observe the difference thus made in the 
meaning of the sentence : — 

(1) You leave the room. 

(2) I believe that she pay me. 

(3) He study grammar. 

(4) Do you say that I accept it ? 

(5) They let us alone. 



PEOPEETIES OF VEEBS. 

467. Verbs have the properties : Voice, to show whether 
the subject represents the doer or the receiver of the act; 



114 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Mode, to indicate the manner in which the action, being, or 
state is expressed; Tense, to denote time; and Person and 
Number, to mark the verb's agreement inform with the per- 
son and number of its subject. 

468. Style is sometimes named as one of the properties of verbs. 
There are four styles or forms of the verb. (1) Common, I love. 
(2) Progressive, I am loving. (3) Solemn, Thou lovest. (4) Em- 
phatic, You did love. 

VOICE. 

469. Voice is that property of the verb which shows 
whether the subject represents the doer or the receiver of 
the act. There are, therefore, two voices, active and pas- 
sive. 

470. Active Voice is that form of the verb which makes its 
subject represent the doer of the act ; as, " Homer wrote the 
Iliad." " She blames me." " I will cover her grave with 
flowers." " The boy runs." 

471. Passive Voice is that form of the verb which makes its 
subject represent the receiver of the act ; as, " The Iliad was 
written by Homer." " I am blamed by her." " Her grave 
shall be covered with flowers by me." 

472. Only verbs that express action can properly be said to have 
voice. 

473. It i s claimed by many that only transitive verbs have voice ; but 
voice is a modification of the verb concerning only its relation to its sub- 
ject. A verb is in the active voice if it represents its subject as acting, 
whether the act terminates upon an object or not. If it does, the verb is 
transitive ; if it does not, the verb is intransitive ; but in either case it is 
in the active voice. It is illogical to make voice a distinction concerning 
the termination of the act upon an object, for that is provided for in the 
classification of verbs into transitive and intransitive. 

474. The active voice is changed to the passive by making the object 
in the active become the subject in the passive. Thus, "Anna studies 
algebra" — " Algebra is studied by Anna." "Napoleon won many bat- 
tles" = " Many battles were won by Napoleon." 



THE VERB. 115 

475. When the verb is in the active voice, the word which represents 
the doer of the act is its subject, and is in the nominative case, and the 
word which represents the receiver of the act is its object, and is in the 
objective case; as, "John struck the boy." But when the verb is in 
the passive voice, the word which represents the receiver of the act is its 
subject, and is in the nominative case, and the word which represents 
the doer of the act is in the objective case, usually governed by the 
preposition by ; as, " The boy was struck by John." 

476. Transitive verbs have the two voices, while intransitive verbs 
have only the active. An intransitive verb can never be changed to the 
passive voice, because it has no object in the active, which may be made 
the subject in the passive. 

477. The elements of the passive voice are, — (1) some form of the 
verb to be, (2) before the perfect participle, (3) of a transitive verb. 

478. 1^ i s ver y convenient to use the passive voice, either when we do 
not know the actor, or when we wish to conceal the actor; as, "The 
crime was committed." 

479. The passive form of intransitive verbs is sometimes used by 
enallage for the active ; as, "The melancholy days are come" for "The 
melancholy days have come." 

480. The active voice is sometimes used by enallage for the passive ; 
as, " The state- house is building." " The work is doing." 

This form of expression is now warranted by our very best writers 
and ablest critics, and no amount of protest on the part of grammarians 
seems sufficient to drive it out of the language. 

481. Exercises. 

(1) Tell the voice of each verb. 

(2) Change the voice, and preserve the meaning of the 
sentence. 

(1) Sarah was astonished at the news. 

(2) William bought a book. 

(3) That poem was written by Saxe. 

(4) He will find his money. 

(5). How do you spend your time ? 

(6) I crossed the river before I saw you. 

(7) We desire to be loved by every one. 

(8) The man was killed by a lion. 

(9) She looks as if she wanted to speak. 
(10) He seems sad. 



116 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

MODE. 

482. Mode is that property of the verb which indicates the 
manner in which the action, being, or state is expressed. 

483. It must be understood that mode does not indicate the manner 
in which the action, being, or state took place, but only the manner of 
its assertion. 

484. All the different manners in which a verb may 
express action, being, or state may be included under six 
modes, four finite, and two infinite. 

FINITE MODES. 

485. The four finite modes are the Indicative, the Sub- 
junctive, the Potential, and the Imperative. 

486. The Indicative is that mode used to assert a thing as 
a fact, to make a denial, or to ask a question ; as, " He 
came." " He did not come." " Did he come ? " 

487. The Subjunctive is that mode used in subjoined 
propositions to express a thought as doubtful, conditional, or 
contrary to fact ; as, " If he be honest (doubt), he will 
succeed." "If he pay me (condition), I will work." "If 
he had been honest (he was not), he would have paid me." 

488. The subjunctive mode has long been, and will no doubt continue 
to be, the source of much perplexity to the pupil, the teacher, and the 
author. Earlier English had, as many other languages still have, a dis- 
tinct form of the verb for this mode. But this distinction has almost 
entirely passed away. Many of the very best writers and speakers no 
longer distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative by the form of the 
verb. 

489. But, although the distinction in form is obsolescent, it seems far 
from right to say that the subjunctive mode will ever be obsolete. • Mode 
never meant form in any language. Mode means manner of expression. 

490. The subjunctive mode may usually, but not always, be known 
by being preceded by if, though, lest, unless, except, whether, that, till. 

491. Some of these words, if and though most frequently, are often 
followed by the indicative instead of the subjunctive. -This is the case 



THE VERB. 117 

when the subordinate sentence expresses an admission instead of a con- 
dition or doubt. In such cases we cannot be guided by the form of the verb, 
but must determine the mode from the thought to be expressed. Some- 
times in isolated sentences the exact thought cannot be known ; then the 
verb cannot be parsed. In the sentence, "If he is honest, he will pay 
you," is is subjunctive, because the subordinate sentence expresses a 
condition; but in the sentence, "If he is honest, he is liable to be mis- 
taken," is in the subordinate sentence is indicative, because it expresses 
an admission. 

492. Were and wert still distinguish the subjunctive from the indica- 
tive was and wast. This is the only distinction that is always observed. 

493. Tne verD is sometimes in the subjunctive mode without the usual 
sign ; as, " Were I in her place, I would get my lessons." 

494. The Potential is that mode used chiefly to express 
power. 

495. A verb in the potential mode most commonly ex- 
presses, — 

(1) Power; as, "I can go." "I could go." 

(2) Possibility ; as, " It may rain." " It might be done" 

(3) Liberty or permission ; as, "You may have it." 

(4) Inclination ; as, "I would like to see him." 

(5) Duty ; as, "You should pay him." 

(6) Necessity; as, " You must leave." 

(7) Wish; as, " May you succeed." 

496. Occasionally a verb in this mode expresses tendency, adaptation, 
consequence, contingence. 

497. The potential, like the indicative, may be used interrogatively ; 
as, " Could it be done?" 

498. The potential mode, unlike the subjunctive, may always be 
known by the form of the verb, or rather by an auxiliary that is placed 
before the verb. 

499. The auxiliaries that are the signs of the potential mode are may, 
can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

500. Since all the tenses of the potential mode may be used in con- 
ditional sentences, it frequently happens that a verb will have the sign of 
the subjunctive, and also the auxiliary denoting the potential ; as, "If he 
would study, he might improve." Here would study is in the subjunctive 
mode, past tense. The first sign governs the mode ; the second, the tense. 



118 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

501. The Imperative is that mode used to express com- 
mand, entreaty, or supplication. It may usually be known 
by the omission of the subject. m 

502. When the speaker addresses an inferior, the verb expresses a 
command; as, " Avaunt and quit my sight!" When the speaker ad- 
dresses an equal, the verb expresses entreaty or exhortation ; as, "Do not 
leave me." When the speaker addresses a superior, the verb expresses 
supplication or prayer ; as, "Give us this day our daily bread." 

503. The subject of an imperative verb is usually a second person 
pronoun understood ; but it may be a noun or pronoun of the third per- 
son, or a pronoun of the first; as, " Ruin seize thee." "Somebody call 
my wife." "Hallowed be thy name" " So be it." " Proceed we then 
to our theme." "Pass we then." 

504. The imperative is used chiefly in principal sentences ; it is used 
in subordinate sentences only in direct quotations; as, "God said, Let 
there be light." 

INFINITE MODES. 

505. The Infinitive and the Participial are those modes in 
which the verb assumes the action, being, or state, instead of 
affirming it, and retains the same form regardless of the per- 
son and number of the subject. (See section 657.) 

TENSE. 

506. Tense is that property of the verb which expresses the 
relation of time ; as, " I went" " I go." " I shall go." 

507. Corresponding to the three divisions of time, there 
are the three Primary Tenses: (1) Present; as, "I write " ; 
(2) Past ; as, " I wrote " ; and (3) Future ; as, " I shall 
write." Each of these primary tenses has a perfect tense, 
thus making three Secondary Tenses : (1) Present Perfect ; 
as, " I have written " ; (2) Past Perfect ; as, " I had writ- 
ten " ; and (3) Future Perfect ; as, " I shall have written." 

508. The Present is that tense which denotes present time ; 
as, " I plow" 



THE VERB. 119 

509. The Present Perfect is that tense which may denote 
any period of past time that extends up to, and ends with, 
the present ; as, " I have plowed" 

510. The Past is that tense which denotes indefinitely any 
past time ; as, " I plowed" 

511. The Past Perfect is that tense which may denote any 
period of past time that extends up to, and ends with, a 
specified past time ; as, " I had plowed the field when he 
planted it." 

512. The Future "is that tense which denotes indefinitely 
any future time; as, "I shall plow " 

513. The Future Perfect is that tense which may denote 
any period of future time that extends up to, and ends with, 
a specified future time ; as, " I shall have plowed the field 
when he plants it." 

(a) Let us remember that each of the perfect tenses refers to a period 
of time as perfected, or completed ; and that the first word of the name of 
the tense tells when the time was perfected. Thus, present perfect refers 
to time that is perfected at the present ; past perfect, to time that was 
perfected at some past time ; and future perfect to time that will be per- 
fected at some future time. 

(b) Every perfect tense must contain some form of the verb have. 
Thus, the present perfect of go is have gone, has gone, or hast gone ; the 
past perfect is had gone or hadst gone ; and the future perfect is will have 
gone or shall have gone. 

FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

514. The Present Tense has three forms : (1) The simple 
form to denote habitual action, or what is true at all times ; 
as, " I write" (2) The progressive form to denote that the 
action is now going on ; as, " I am writing" (3) The 
emphatic form to express a thing with more emphasis ; as, 
" I do write" 



120 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

515. The progressive form always distinguishes a continuous from an 
instantaneous act. 

516. The present tense is often used instead of the past to denote a 
single past action; as, " He walks (walked) up to the man and knocks 
(knocked) him down." This is called the historical present. It is used 
frequently by the historian, the poet, and the orator to give animation to 
their description. 

517. The present tense is often used instead of the future when the 
future is conceived of as present; as, " When he has an opportunity, he 
will speak about it." 

518. The present tense is used to denote general truths or what is 
true at all times. This statement is true with regard to principal propo- 
sitions, but in subordinate propositions it does not always hold. 

519. The Present Perfect Tense has two forms. (1) The 
simple form to denote any period of past time extending 
up to, and ending with, the present ; as, u I have written" 
(2) The progressive form to denote the continuation of the 
act through the period of time referred to ; as, " I have been 
writing." 

520. The Past Tense has three forms. (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely any past time ; as, " I wrote" 
(2) The progressive form to denote continuation of an 
action through any past period not extending up to the 
present ; as, " I was writing" (3) The emphatic form to 
denote emphasis ; as, "I did write." 

521. The Past Perfect Tense has two forms. (1) Thb 
simple form to denote that the act was completed in a 
period of past time that extended up to, and ended with, 
some other specified past time ; as, " I had written the letter 
before he called for it." (2) The progressive form to denote 
that the action continued through the above-named period 
of past time ; as, " I had been writing the letter before he 
called for it." 

522. The Future Tense has two forms. (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely the time of any future event ; 



THE VERB. 121 

as, "I shall write" (2) The progressive form to denote the 
continuation of the act through some period of future 
time ; as, " I shall be writing" 

523. It must be remembered that the past tense and the future, when 
not assisted by adverbs, denote time indefinitely, but may be followed by 
adverbs that denote the time very definitely; as, "I went yesterday.'''' 
" He will come to-morrow" 

524. The Future Perfect Tense has two forms. (1) The 
simple form to denote that an act will be completed in a 
period of future time that extends up to, and ends with, 
some other specified future time ; as, " I shall have written 
the letter before he calls for it." 

Here ''•calls," which is present tense, refers to future time by being 
used in connection with the word before. 

(2) The progressive form to denote that the action is to 
continue through the above-named period of future time ; 
as, " I shall have been writing an hour when he comes." 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES IN EACH OF THE MODES, ACTIVE VOICE. 

525. The Indicative Mode has six tenses. 

(1) Present : Simple form of the verb ; " I write.' 1 '' 

(2) Past : Past indicative of the verb ; " I wrote." 

(3) Future : Shall or will before the simple form ; " I shall write." 

(4) Present Perfect : Have, hath, has, or hast before the perfect par- 
ticiple ; "I have written." 

(5) Past Perfect: Had or hadst before the perfect participle; " I had 
written." 

(6) Future Perfect : Shall have, or will have before the perfect par- 
ticiple; " I shall have written." 

526. The Potential Mode has four tenses. 

(1) Present : May, can, or must before the simple form ; " I may write." 

(2) Past: Might, could, would, or should before the simple form; " I 
might write" 



122 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(3) Present Perfect: May have, can have, or must have before the 
perfect participle ; " I may have written." 

(4) Past Perfect : Might have, could have, would have, or should have 
before the perfect participle ; " I might have written.'''' 

527. The Subjunctive Mode most commonly has the Pres- 
ent, Past, or Past Perfect ; but it may be used in any of 
the six tenses. The signs are the same as in the Indicative 
and Potential. 

528. The Imperative Mode has one tense. 
(1) Present: Write. 

529. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses. 

(1) Present: To before the simple form ; " To write" 

(2) Present Perfect: To have before the perfect participle; " To have 
written" 

530. The Participial Mode has two tenses. 

(1) Present : The form that ends in ing ; " Writing" 

(2) Present Perfect: Having before the perfect participle ; u Having 
written." 

Remark. — Let the pupil change each of the above verbs to the passive 
voice, preserving its tense and mode. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

531. Person and Number are the properties according to 
which the verb changes its form to suit the person and 
number of its subject : " I write " ; " He writes " ; " They 
write." 

532. Person and number belong only to finite verbs. Infinitives and 
participles never change their form for the person and number of their 
subject. 

533. Certain verbs whose subject is usually the pronoun it are some- 
times called impersonal or unipersonal verbs; as, "It thunders." "It 
hails." "It freezes." But this is not a good distinction, and has been 
rejected by the best grammarians. Such verbs do often have for their 
subjects, nouns of different persons and numbers. 



THE VERB. 123 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

534. Inflection is any variation in form which a verb may 
undergo to indicate voice, mode, tense, person, and number, 
and its principal parts. 

535. The Conjugation of a verb is the naming of its prin- 
cipal parts ; its Synopsis is its variation in form through its 
different voices, modes, and tenses, in a single person and 
number ; while Inflection is chiefly used to denote its com- 
plete variation through all its voices, modes, tenses, persons, 
and numbers. These are the meanings given to the terms 
by most grammarians, but not by all. 



A. THE VERB "BE." 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Be ; Past Indicative, Was ; Perfect Participle, Been. 

INFLECTION. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. You are. Thou art. 2. You or ye are. 

3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was 1. We were. 

2. You were. Thou wast. 1 2. You or ye were. 

3. He, she, or it was. 3. They were. 

i Be in the present and Wert in the past are old forms, not used except in 
the Scriptures. 



124 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. Thou wilt be. 2. You or ye will be. 
3 He will be. 3. They will be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been.. 

2. You have been. Thou hast been. 2. You or ye have been. 

3. He has been. He hath been. 3. They have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been 1. We had been. 

2. You had been. Thou hadst been. 2. You or ye had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 2. You or ye will have been. 

Thou wilt have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. You may be. Thou mayst be. 2. You or ye may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 



THE VERB. 125 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. You might be. Thou mightst be. 2. You or ye might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. 2. You or ye may have been. 

Thou mayst have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 2. You or ye might have been. 

Thou mightst have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

Remark. — By using the conjunction, if, all the Tenses^of the Indica- 
tive and Potential Modes may be made conditional, or subjunctive. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or do thou be. 2. Be, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be ; Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Being ; Perfect, Having been. ' 

Remarks. — (a) The verb, be, has no progressive style, and is emphatic 
only in the Imperative. 

(&) Wherever the pronoun he appears, she and it may also be supplied. 



126 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

B. THE EEGULAE TEANSITIVE VEEB, "MOVE." 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Move; Past Indicative, Moved; Perfect Participle, Moved. 

INFLECTION. 

ORDINARY AND SOLEMN STYLES. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I move. 1. We move. 

2. You move. Thou movest. 2. You or ye move. 

3. He moves. He moveth. 3. They move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I moved. 1. We moved. 

2. You moved. Thou movedst. 2. You or ye moved. 

3. He moved. 3. They moved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall move. 1. We shall move. 

2. You will move. Thou wilt move. 2. You or ye will move. 

3. He will move. 3. They will move. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have moved. 1- We have moved. 

2. You have moved. Thou hast moved. 2. You or ye have moved. 

3. He has moved. He hath moved. 3. They have moved. 



THE VERB. 127 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style, 

1. I had moved. 1. We had moved. 

2. You had moved. Thou hadst moved. 2. You or ye had moved. 

3. He had moved. 3. They had moved. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have moved. 1. We shall have moved. 

2. You will have moved. 2. You or ye will have moved. 

Thou wilt have moved. 

3. He will have moved. 3. They will have moved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may move. 1. We may move. 

2. You may move. 2. You or ye may move. 

Thou mayst move. 

3. He may move. 3. They may move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might move. 1. We might move. 

2. You might move. 2. You or ye might move. 

Thou mightst move. 

3. He might move. 3. They might move. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have moved. 1. We may have moved. 

2. You may have moved. 2. You or ye may have moved. 

Thou mayst have moved. 

3. He may have moved. 3. They may have moved. 



128 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have moved. 1. We might have moved. 

2. You might have moved. 2. You or ye might have moved. 

Thou mightst have moved. 

3. He might have moved. 3. They might have moved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Move, or do thou move. 2. Move, or do ye or you move. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present^ To move ; Present Perfect, To have moved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 
Present, Moving ; Present Perfect, Having moved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. . Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I am moved. 1. We are moved. 

2. You are moved. Thou art moved. 2. You or ye are moved. 

3. He is moved. 3. They are moved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was moved. 1. We were moved. 

2. You were moved. 2. You or ye were moved. 

Thou wast moved. 

3. He was moved. 3. They were moved. 



THE VERB. 129 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be moved. 1. We shall be moved. 

2. You will be moved. 2. You or ye will be moved. 

Thou wilt be moved. 

3. He will be moved. 3. They will be moved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been moved. 1. We have been moved. 

2. You have been moved. 2. You or ye have been moved. 

Thou hast been moved. 

3. He has been moved. 3. They have been moved. 

He hath been moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been moved. 1. We had been moved. 

2. You had been moved. 2. You or ye had been moved. 

Thou hadst been moved. 

3. He had been moved. 3. They had been moved. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I will have been moved. 1. We will have been moved. 

2. You will have been moved. 2. You or he will have been moved. 

Thou wilt have been moved. 

3. He will have been moved. 3. They will have been moved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be moved. 1. We may be moved. 

2. You may be moved. 2. You or ye may be moved. 

Thou mayst be moved. 

3. He may be moved. 3. They may be moved. 



130 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be moved. 1. We might be moved. 

2. You might be moved. 2. You or ye might be moved. 

Thou mightsl be moved. 

3. He might be moved. 3. They might be moved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have been moved. 1. We may have been moved. 

2. You may have been moved. 2. You or ye may have been moved. 

Thou mayst have been moved. 

3. He may have been moved. 3. They may have been moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been moved. 1. We might have been moved. 

2. You might have been moved. 2. You or ye might have been moved. 

Thou mightst have been moved. 

3. He might have been moved. 3. They might have been moved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be moved, or be thou moved. 2. Be moved, or be ye or you moved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be moved ; Present Perfect, To have been moved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 
Present, Being moved ; Present Perfect, Having been moved. 



THE VERB. 131 

PROGRESSIVE STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I am moving. 1. We are moving. 

2. You are moving. 2. You or ye are moving. 

Thou art moving. 

3. He is moving. 3. They are moving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was moving. 1. We were moving. 

2. You were moving. 2. You or ye were moving. 

Thou wert moving. 

3. He was moving. 3. They were moving. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be moving. 1. We shall be moving. 

2. You will be moving. 2. You or ye will be moving. 

Thou wilt be moving. 

3. He will be moving. 3. They will be moving. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been moving. . 1. We have been moving. 

Thou hast been moving. 

2. You have been moving. 2. You or ye have been moving. 

He hath been moving. 

3. He has been moving. 3. They have been moving. 



132 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. u Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been moving. 1. We had been moving. 

2. Yon had been moving. 2. Yon or ye had been moving. 

Thou hadst been moving. 

3. He had been moving. 3. They had been moving. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have been moving. 1. We shall have been moving. 

2. You will have been moving. 2. Yon or ye will have been moving. 

Thou wilt have been moving. 

3. He will have been moving. 3. They will have been moving. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be moving. 1. We may be moving. 

2. Yon may be moving. 2. You or ye may be moving. 

Thou mayst be moving. 

3. He may be moving. 3. They may be moving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be moving. 1. We might be moving. 

2. You might be moving. 2. You or ye might be moving. 

Thou mightst be moving. 

3. He might be moving. 3. They might be moving. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style- 

1. I may have been moving. 1. We may have been moving. 

2. You may have been moving. 2. You or ye may have been moving. 

Thou mayst have been moving. 

3. He may have been moving. 3. They may have been moving. 



THE VERB. 133 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been moving. 1. We might have been moving. 

2. You might have been moving. 2. You or ye might have been moving. 

Thou mightst have been moving. 

3. He might have been moving. 3. They might have been moving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular — 2. Be moving, or do thou be moving. 
Plural — 2. Be moving, or do ye or you be moving. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be moving ; Perfect, To have been moving. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 
Present, Being moving ; Perfect, Having been moving. 

EMPHATIC STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I do move. 1. We do move. 

2. You do move. Thou dost move. 2. You or ye do move. 

3. He does move. He doth move. 3. They do move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I did move. 1. We did move. 

2. You did move. Thou didst move. 2. You or ye did move. 

3. He did move. 3. They did move. 

IMPEEATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Do thou move. 2. Do ye move. 



134 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

536. Model for Parsing the Verb. 

(1) CLASSES, (a) transitive or intransitive; (6) attributive or 

copulative ; (c) regular or irregular. (If irregular, 
give principal parts.) 

(2) PROPERTIES, (a) voice, (5) mode, (c) tense, (d) person and 

number. 

(3) CONSTRUCTION (agreement with subject). 

(4) Rule. 

537. All the uses of a verb cannot very conveniently be stated in the 
parsing, but may be made clear by the questions and explanations of the 
teacher and class. See complete outline of the verb. 

538. Parsing. 

(1) The hunter killed the bear. 

(2) I am sick. 

(3) They will have been invited. 

(4) He was considered honest. 

"Killed" v., trans., attrib., reg., act., ind., past, 3d, sing., to agree with 

its subj. " hunter," R. XV. 
" Am," v., intrans., cop., irreg. — am, was, been — ind., pres., 1st, sing., 

to agree with its subj. "I," R. XV. 
61 Will have been invited," v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., ind., fut. per., 

3d, plu., to agree with its subj. "they," R. XV. 
" Was considered ," v., trans., cop., reg., pass., ind., past, 3d, sing., to 

agree with its subj. " he," R. XV. 

A. — (1) Plato reasons well. 

(2) Every triangle has three sides. 

(3) He has sold his farm. 

(4) You may come after your work is finished* 

(5) If I were you, I would try that. 

(6) Get wisdom. 

(7) Gret out of the way. 

(8) James says that the pudding tastes sour. 

(9) I believe I will taste it. 
(10) The man struck the boy. 



THE VERB. 135 

(11) The ship struck on a rock. 

(12) The city surrendered to the enemy. 

(13) The general surrendered the fort. 

(14) The rose smells sweet. 

(15) He is talking nonsense. 

(16) He may come. 

(17) Must I bear all this? 

(18) I can write a letter. 

(19) You should study. 

(20) If I were you, I would try to do better. 

(21) Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

(22) If he is here, ask him to come in. 

(23) If he was hurt, he kept it to himself. 

(24) If I could assist you, I would willingly. 
^(25) If he would study, he might improve. 

(26) Send me a dollar. 

(27) Troy was, but is no more. 

(28) He is poor now, and will always be. 

(29) What was is no more, and what is will not be. 

(30) Bryant is the author of Thanatopsis. 

(31) The place was covered with flowers. 

(32) The state-house is building. 

(33) Thou didst create this wondrous world. 

(34) The hunters had killed a bear. 

(35) When I have completed this grammar, I will visit 

you. 
v (36) The storm may have broken down the old apple- 
tree. 

(37) If you should write to her, it might appear that 

I had requested it. 

(38) Shall we submit to chains and slavery? 

(39) I would I were with him. 

(40) He was born great. 



136 



COMMON SCHOOL GKAMMAE. 



B-(l) 

(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 
(6) 
(7) 
(8) 



(9) 



(10) 
(11) 



Go, wash your face, and get ready for school. 

Green be their graves. 

You ought to go. 

The lady is accomplished. 

The task was not accomplished in a day. 

I could not go, because my buggy was broken. 

My buggy was broken when my horse ran away. 

To the next circle, teacher, bend thy steps, 

And from the wall dismount we. 

Cary's Dante'' s Inferno, line 71, canto 24 
Pass we then, 

For so Heaven's pleasure is. — Id., line 80, canto 21. 
If you wish to know the truth, speak the truth. 

The noble Brutus 
Hath told you Csesar was ambitious : 
If it were so, it was a grievous fault, 
And grievously hath Caesar answered it. — Shakespeare. 






539. Outline of the Verb. 

la. Classes. 
lb. According to their relation 
to subjects. 
lc. Finite. 
2c. Infinite. 
Id. Infinitive. 
2d. Participle. 
2b. According to their relation 
to objects. 
lc. Transitive. 
2c. Intransitive. 
36. According to their complete- 
ness of predication. 
lc. Attributive. 
2c. Copulative. 
46. According to their form, 
lc. Kegular. 
2c. Irregular. 
Id. Complete. 
2d. Redundant. 
3d. Defective. 



56. According to their rank. 

lc. Principal. 

2c. Auxiliary. 
2a. Parts. 
16. Principal. 

lc. Present indicative. 

2c. Past indicative. 

3c. Perfect participle. 
26. Auxiliary. 
3a. Properties. 
16. Voice. 

lc. Active. 

2c. Passive. 
26. Mode. 

lc. Indicative. 

2c. Potential. 

3c. Subjunctive 

4c. Infinitive. 

5c. Participial. 

6c. Imperative 
36. Tense. 



THE VERB. 137 

\ 

lc. Primary. Id. Present perfect. 

Id. Present. 2d. Past perfect. 

2d. Past. Sd. Future perfect. 

3$. Future. 4&. Person. 

2c. Secondary. 5&. Number. 



SYNTAX OP THE VEEB. 

540. Rule XV. — A finite verb agrees with its subject 
in person and number. 

Example. — "I plow." " He plows.'''' "They plow.'''' 

541. A verb having two or more subjects connected by and must be 
plural; as, " He and I are brothers." 

542. A verb having two or more singular subjects connected by or 
or nor must be singular; as, " He or she goes." " Either the lawyer or 
the doctor was mistaken." 

543. A verD having two or more plural subjects connected by or or 
nor must be plural; as, "We or they are wrong." "The men or the 
women were mistaken." 

544. A verb cannot have two or more nominatives differing in number 
or in person. When two or more of such nominatives stand in a sentence 
before one verb, the verb agrees with the one nearest to it, and a verb is 
understood with each of the others. 

(a) Put the plural subject next to the verb ; as, " Either the teacher or 
his pupils were -to blame." 

(b) Let the first person be next to the verb, the third person next in 
order, and the second person farthest from the verb ; as, " You, he, or I 
am mistaken." "You or she is mistaken." But it is always better in 
such cases to re- write the sentence, giving each nominative its own verb, 
if it can be done without making the sentence sound too formal ; as, 
"Either the teacher was to blame, or his pupils were." "You are mis- 
taken, or she is." 

545. An appositive modifying the subject does not affect the form of 
the verb; as, "I, your master, command you"; or, "Your master, I, 
commands you." 

546. A verD having for its subject a collective noun, conveying the 
idea of unity, must be singular; as, "The army was divided." "This 
jury says he is guilty, but the other jury does not agree with this one." 
"The regiment is made up of two thousand men." "Our club beats 
yours every time." 



138 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

547. A verb having for its subject a collective noun conveying the 
idea of plurality must be plural; as, "The whole army are happy." 
"The jury are not agreed." "The regiment were laughing and talking." 
"Your club wear blue uniforms, but our club do not dress in uniforms." 

548. Ik i s a matter of importance to the pupil that he be able to 
distinguish the two ideas conveyed by the collective noun, — that of unity 
and that of plurality. 

549. Ik i s niany times impossible to determine whether the collective 
noun expresses the idea of unity or that of plurality, since it depends, in 
most instances, upon the particular conception the speaker took of the 
collection of objects. In the plural sense, the collective noun has been 
compared to a rope having its strands or threads untwisted ; in the sin- 
gular, to the same in a twisted state. We may say, as a general rule, that 
when the term denotes separation, distribution, or diversity, in regard to 
place, time, action or state, the verb should be plural ; otherwise, singular. 
Say, "The public are respectfully invited." "My family are in the 
country" (different places). "My family is in the country" (the same 
place). " The committee was large." "The committee were not agreed." 
"Congress has adjourned." "A number of boats have passed up the 
river this spring, and the number is increasing daily." The last example 
shows the distinction in its greatest nicety. 

550. The pronoun you, whether singular or plural, should always have 
a plural verb ; as, "You (one or many) were mistaken." 

551. An adjunct, or prepositional phrase, joined to the subject, must 
not be allowed to aft'ect the form of the verb. Do not say, " The deriva- 
tion of such words are uncertain." "The examination of his friends 
show him to be a bankrupt." 

552. Be careful to use the right form of the verb when the sentence 
is introduced by such words as hence or there. Do not say, " Hence 
arises eight parts of speech." "There was differences between them," 
etc. 

553. Exercises. 

(a) In all these exercises the verb must be in the present tense, in 
order that its agreement with its subject may be noted. 

I. Write five sentences in which the verbs have each two or 
more subjects joined by and. 

II. Write Jive sentences in which each verb follows two or 
more singular subjects joined by OR or NOR. 



THE VERB. 139 

III. Write five sentences, each containing but one verb with 
two or more nominatives differing in number. 

IV. Write five sentences, each containing but one verb with 
two or more nominatives differing in person. 

V. Write sentences in which the collective nouns, SCHOOL, 

ASSEMBLY, BAND (of musicians), CROWD, PAIR, FAMILY, 

are used as subjects of singular verbs. 

VI. Write sentences in which they are used as subjects of 
plural verbs. 

VII. Supply suitable verbs in the following blanks : — 

(1) Either he or I to blame. 

(2) You or Thomas mistaken. 

(3) Either the teacher or the pupils to blame. 

(4) Which of these two books best ? 

(5) The condition of the roads very bad. 

(6) What sounds each of the vowels ? 

(7) Hence the following advantages. 

(8) Neither the boy nor his brother very industrious. 

(9) Which of the soldiers received pensions ? 

(10) Everybody very kind to me. 

(11) I knew that you my father's friend. 

Note. — In III. and IV. the connective is to be or or nor as in the II. 



140 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE ADVERB. 

554. The Adverb is a word that usually modifies a verb, 

adjective, or another adverb ; as, — 

" John writes correctly.'''' "He is exceedingly careful." "He does 
tolerably welV* 

555. As the name adverb suggests, the principal use of this part of 
speech is to modify the verb ; but it may modify — 

(1) A verb; as, "He talks intelligently.'''' 

(2) An adjective ; as, " She is very lazy.' 1 '' 

(3) An adverb ; as, " He works well enough.'''' 

(4) A prepositional phrase ; as, " Has the Lord spoken only by Moses V 

556. Sometimes the adverb is used independently; as, "Did he 
come ? " " Fes." The adverbs yes and no are often said to modify the 
entire proposition ; but the truth is, that they are equivalent to entire 
propositions. To the question, " Did he come ? " there may be two affirm- 
ative answers: " He did come'''' ; and "Fes." Sometimes both answers 
are given to one question ; as, "Fes, he did come'''' ; but it is simply re- 
peating the answer for emphasis. Yes and no are responsive adverbs used 
independently. Yes is of affirmation; no, of negation. 

557. The adverb frequently modifies a word understood; as, "When 
will he come again ? " " Sometime." Here, sometime modifies the verb 
will come, understood. 

CLASSES OF ADVEKBS. 

558. Adverbs are classified as to use, and as to the idea 
to be expressed. 

559. As to use, adverbs are Simple and Conjunctive. The 
simple adverb has but one use, that is, the modifying use ; 
as, " Speak distinctly." The conjunctive adverb has two uses 
— the modifying, and the connective ; as, " The tree lies 
where it fell." " He came when he was wanted." Here ivhere 



THE ADVERB. 141 

and when are adverbs, because they limit their verbs so as 
to express the ideas of place and time ; and they are con- 
junctive adverbs, because they perform the office of con- 
junctions. 

560. The conjunctive adverb cannot be said to connect 
two propositions, for it only joins one proposition to some 
part of another. 

561. The simple adverb may be used either in simple or 
complex sentences, but the conjunctive adverb is found 
only in complex sentences, and it always forms part of the 
subordinate sentence. If we keep this in mind we shall 
never make the mistake of parsing the conjunctive adverb 
as modifying some word in the principal sentence. It 
always modifies some word in the subordinate sentence, 
which it joins to some part of the principal sentence. 
Thus, in " You should eat where you work," where is a 
conjunctive adverb modifying work, and joins the subordi- 
nate sentence to the verb should eat. 

562. Sometimes the conjunctive adverb joins its subordi- 
nate sentence to a noun. It may then be called a relative 
adverb, because it fills the office of a relative pronoun. 
Example : " He walked to the cottage where his little friend 
lay sick." Here ivhere limits lay sick, in the subordinate 
sentence, which it joins to the noun cottage. 

563. Two adverbs are often used in the same sentence 
so that one answers or responds to the other. They are 
then called correlative, or responsive adverbs ; as, "As you 
labor, so will you be rewarded." As, so, are correlative or 
responsive adverbs of manner. As is a conjunctive adverb ; 
it limits labor, and joins the subordinate sentence to so. 
So is a simple adverb, limiting will be rewarded. 

564. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that limits some word 



142 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

in a subordinate sentence, which it joins to some part of the 
principal sentence. 

565. A conjunctive adverb is usually equivalent to two prepositional 
phrases ; as, " Come when you are wanted " = " Come at the time at which 
you are wanted." " It lies where you left it " = " It lies in the place in 
which you left it." " She is as good as I " = u She is good to the degree 
to which I am good." In such sentences as the last, the conjunctive 
adverb is equivalent to but one phrase, the force of the first phrase being 
expressed by the first as. Relative adverbs also are equivalent to but one 
phrase; as, "The house where it occurred " = " The house in which it 
occurred." 

566. The teacher will find it a very profitable exercise to have the 
class rewrite sentences containing conjunctive adverbs, expanding them 
into their equivalent phrase or phrases. They may thus see clearly the 
exact idea expressed by every conjunctive adverb. 

567. As to the idea to be expressed, adverbs may be divided into — 
(a) Adverbs of time ; expressing the idea of time, either when, how 

long, or how often ; as, ever, never, always, continually, constantly, end- 
lessly, forever, incessantly, everlastingly, evermore, aye, then, meanwhile, 
meantime, when, whenever, as, while, subsequently, after, afterwards, 
otherwhile, before, late, early, again, oftentimes, sometimes, occasionally, 
rarely, frequently, now and then, weekly, early, monthly, yearly, daily, 
newly, anew, now, to-day, nowadays, yet, as yet, yesterday, heretofore, 
recently, lately, of late, formerly, already, just now, anciently, as soon 
as, long since, long ago, ere while, till now, hereafter, soon, to-morrow, 
erelong, by and by, instantly, momentarily, directly, forthwith, not yet, 
anon. 

(6) Adverbs of place ; those suggesting the idea of place ; as, here, 
there, yonder, everywhere, where, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, wher- 
ever, wheresoever, herein, therein, hereabouts, thereabouts, where- 
abouts, hereby, thereby, around, on high, whence, hence, elsewhere, off, 
afar, about, above, before, behind, under, beneath, within, without, 
whither, hither, up, down, backwards, forwards, hitherwards, nigh. 

(c) Adverbs of manner ; those answering or asking the question, 
how : so, thus, well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, how, anyhow, some- 
how, however, howsoever, otherwise, least, likewise, as, extremely, at 
length, lengthwise, suitably, considerably, happily, extensively, together, 
separately, accordingly, creditably, necessarily, really, certainly, foot by 



THE ADVERB. 143 

foot, so so, wholly, clearly, namely, silently, feelingly, surprisingly, 
mournfully, merely, proportionally, verily. 

(d) Adverbs of degree ; those suggesting the idea of how much, 
how little, or to what extent : much, more, most, little, less, least, far, 
by far, farther, very, too. mostly, entirely, actually, in general, totally, 
highly, perfectly, all, altogether, quite, constantly, extravagantly, im- 
measurably, immensely, painlessly, infinitely, clear, nearly, well nigh, 
partly, partially, intensely, exclusively, scantily, precisely, enough, exactly, 
even, ever so, just as, sufficiently, somewhat, at all, simply, brightly, par- 
ticularly, especially, in particular, also, besides, still, likewise, moreover, 
furthermore. 

(e) Adverbs of cause, purpose, or reason; those answering the 
question why : why, wherefore, hence, therefore, then, thence, conse- 
quently, whereby, hereby, thereby. 

(/) Adverbs of doubt ; as, perhaps, probably, perchance, possibly, 
doubtfully, doubtless, certainly. 

(g) Adverbs of affirmation or negation: yes, no, not, yea, aye, 
nay. 

568. Adverbs of doubt are usually given as subdivisions of adverbs of 
manner, but this is a wrong classification. No one of these adverbs of 
doubt answers to a question concerning the manner of an action. If the 
question, How did lie go ? were asked, it could not be answered by the 
word perhaps. It must be kept in mind that the adverb must always be 
named according to the idea which it expresses. 

569. The classification given here cannot be complete, because it 
would be impossible to name all the different ideas that may be expressed 
by the adverb. 

570. Adverbs which modify the manner of the expression, rather than 
the manner of the action, are called Modal Adverbs ; as, truly, verily, 
etc. Thus in the sentence, " Truly he came," truly does not refer to the 
coming, but to the saying. Such adverbs may, for convenience, be parsed 
as modifying the verb in the sentence in which they are found, but in 
reality they modify the verb say, understood. 

571. An adverb used to ask a question is called an Interrogative 
Adverb. All others may be regarded as responsive , 

572. Adverbs are often used in connection with the verb to express 
time more definitely ; as, " I shall go, presently. 1 '' 

573. A combination of words used as a single adverb may be parsed 
as an Adverbial Phrase ; as, by and by, day and night, so so, again and 
again, at random, in vain, at least, on high, in fine, at present, at last, out 
and out, through and through, no more, man by man. But when the com- 



144 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

bination does not have the force of a single adverb, the words should be 
parsed separately; as, " He signed it then and there.''' Then expresses 
the idea of time, and there of place ; they cannot therefore be parsed 
together. 

574. A few adverbs are used merely to introduce a sentence. They 
should then be parsed as introductory expletives. They have no modi- 
fying force in the sentence ; as, " There were fifty men present." " Why, 
did you see Jones, yesterday ? " " Well ! what did you think of it ? " 

575. Comparison. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, have one property, — compari- 
son; as, loud, louder, loudest; well, better, best; brightly, 
more brightly, most brightly. The kinds, methods, and de- 
grees are the same as those of the adjective. 

576. The rule for the comparative and superlative of adjectives applies 
to the comparative and superlative of adverbs. 

577. Model for Parsing the Adverb. 

(1) Species. (4) Degree. 

(2) Classes. (5) Construction. 

(3) Comparison. (6) Rule. 

578. Parsing. 

(1) Work diligently while the sun shines. 

(2) We walked to the kennel where the puppies lay. 

"Diligently ," adv. of manner — diligently, more diligently, most diligently 

— pos. deg., and lim. "work," R. XI. 
"While" adv., conj. of time ; it lim. "shines," and joins its subor. sent. 

to "work," R. XL 
"Where," adv., rel. of place; it lim. "lay," and joins its subor. sent. 

to "kennel," R. XL 

579. Parse nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs orally 
by abridged model, and the adverbs in full. 



THE ADVERB. 145 

A. — (1) She sang sweetly. 

(2) The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. 

(3) When shall I see you again? Some time. 

(4) They lived very happily. 

(5) We were agreeably disappointed. 

(6) Do you expect them to-morrow ? Yes. 

(7) She is continually changing her mind. 

(8) It cannot be true. 

(9) Perhaps I shall go. 

(10) Doubtless it is true. 

B. — (1) Time is ever flying. (2) When will the house "be covered ? 
To-morrow. (3) How often do you lecture ? Never. (4) We see, there- 
fore we believe. (5) How well can she play ? (6) How well she can 
play ! (7) How shall we act ? Wisely. (8) How is Ruth ? Sick. 
(9) They burst their bonds asunder. (10) Perhaps there were fifty men 
fighting bravely. (11) The old house stands right over the way. (12) They 
work day and night. (13) She stood silent as she heard the sad news. 
(14) Thoughts do often lie too deep for tears. (15) The stick was a 
trifle too weak to bear well his weight. (16) Be it ever so humble, there 
is no place like home. (17) Never shall we see his like again. (18) I 
shall meet my friend when the boat arrives. (19) The lilies grow where 
the ground is moist. (20) The patriot answers whenever his country calls. 
(21) Whither I go ye cannot come. (22) Ere the day dawns he will die. 
(23) He came before I left. — (See Prep.) (24) It is uncertain where 
Homer was born. (25) Newton discovered why an apple falls. (26) Logic 
teaches how we think. (27) Make hay while the sun shines. (28) As 
we labor so shall we be rewarded. (29) As is the boy so will be the 
man. (30) When you have finished your task, then you may rest. 

580. Outline of the Adverb. 

la. Divisions. lc. Tinle. 

lb. As to use. 2c. Place. 

lc. Simple. 3c. Cause. 

Id. Limiting. 4c. Manner, 

lc. Interrogative. 5c. Degree. 

2c. Responsive. 6c Doubt. 

2d. Independent. 7c. Affirmation. 

2c. Conjunctive. 8c. Negation. 
25. As to meaning. 2a. Comparison. (See Adjective.) 



146 COMMON SCHOOL GEAMMAE. 

SYNTAX OF THE ADVEEB. 

581. Rule XI. — Adverbs usually limit verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. 

582. Two negatives make an affirmative ; as, " I will not do it no 
more." " I have not had no bread to-day." 

583. The word following an intransitive verb should be an adjective or 
an adverb, according as we wish to refer to the condition of the subject, or 
the manner of the action expressed by the verb. Thus if I wish to refer 
to the condition of the man, I say, "He looks strange " ; but if I wish to 
describe the manner in which he looked, I say, " He looked strangely at 
me." And to refer to my condition at the time of my arrival, I say, " I 
arrived safe" not safely. 

584. In poetry an adjective is often used instead of an adverb for the 
sake of the meter ; as, " The swallow sings sweet from her nest on the 
wall." 

585. All liabilities to error in the use of the adverb may 
be reduced to three heads : Choice, Form, and Position. 

586. Rules. 

(1) Always use that adverb which expresses, or most nearly 
expresses, the meaning intended. 

(2) Always use the best adverbial form of the word. 

(3) Always give the adverb that position in the sentence 
which adds most to the correctness, clearness, and elegance of 
the expression. 

587. Exercise. 

Apply the above rules to the following sentences : — 

(1) Do not walk so fast ; you will soon become weary. 

(2) She is less beautiful than he supposed. 

(3) All your neighbors were not invited. 

(4) How he got it again I scarcely knew. 

(5) There cannot be found one man that is willing to undertake it. 

(6) The San Jacinto River flows through the southern part of Texas. 

(7) Whether you are willing or not, you will have to pay the debt. 

(8) Speak slow and distinctly. 



THE ADVEKB. 147 

(9) She behaved very sillily. 

(10) He was running very rapidly, but suddenly stopped. 

(11) Two young ladies came to the party nearly dressed alike. 

(12) I am only tolerable well. 

(13) Suddenly there came a tapping, as of some one gently rapping, 
rapping at my chamber door. 

(14) The boy acted nobler than his brother. 

(15) The lady dresses remarkably elegant. 

(16) The fox is an exceeding artful animal. 

(17) He is exceeding clever. 

(18) You have been wrong informed on this subject. 

(19) Nothing further was said about the matter. 

(20) Come quick ! you walk too slow. 

(21) We remained a week at Galveston, and proceeded thence to 
Indianola. 

(22) No one is nobler or loftier than he. 

(23) We went back to the cave. 

(24) Such cloaks were in fashion about five years since. 

(25) I received the gift with pleasure, but I shall now gladlier resign it. 

(26) If you have only learned to spend money extravagantly at college, 
you may stay at home. 

(27) Corn should be generally planted in April. 

(28) Having lost once $1000 by speculation, he will never have another 
chance. 

(29) That was a remarkably fine speech. 

(30) Having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. 

(31) We do those things frequently which we repent of afterward. 

(32) The flowers smell sweetly. 

(33) At this place the mountains are considerably high and steep. 

(34) I went by the house in a buggy. 



148 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

588. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between its object and some other word. 

589. In " We sat on a box of iron" on shows the relation 
between sat and box ; that is, it indicates in what way the 
object represented by the noun box is related to the action 
expressed by the verb sat. Of shows the relation between 
iron and box. 

I. CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

590. Prepositions are classed, according to their form, 
into — 

(1) Simple. — Single prepositions ; as, in, at 3 on, by, for, 
etc. 

(2) Compound. — Consisting of two or more prepositions ; 
as, from above, from under, etc. 

(3) Complex. — Any combination of different parts of 
speech used as a single preposition ; as, to the extent of, to 
the distance of, etc. 

II. TERMS OF RELATION. 

591. Prepositions are relation ivords ; and since relation 
can exist only between two objects, there must always be 
two terms of the relation expressed by a preposition. These 
terms are called object and antecedent. 

592. The object of a preposition is always a noun or 
some expression used as a noun. 



THE PREPOSITION. 149 



593. It may be • 



(1) A noun : " We went to the river" 

(2) A pronoun : " He sat by me." 

(3) An adverb : In such expressions as, since then, before then, till 
now, to here, for ever, between now and then. (See Whitney's Grammar, 
p. 144.) 

(4) An adjective : On high, of oZ$, in vain, for #ood 

(5) An infinitive : " She did nothing but [to] cr?/." 

(6) A participle : " She never thinks of #om# to school." 

(7) A clause : " We have been talking about who deserves the prize." 
"The labor of clearing land depends upon how much timber there is grow- 
ing on it." "Reason and justice have been jurymen since before Noah 
was a sailor." The words after, before, since, till, until, and ere are 
not conjunctive adverbs. When followed by subordinate clauses, they 
are prepositions governing the clauses which follow. ' ' We started before 
the sun set" = before sunset. " We supported the president after he was 
elected" = after his election. " He has not been seen since he arrived " — 
since his arrival, etc. To parse such words as conjunctive adverbs, 
limiting the verb in the subordinal clause always gives the. sentence a 
meaning contrary to that intended. To illustrate, the first sentence above 
means what it says : " We started before the sun set" ; but to analyze it 
with before as a conjunctive adverb modifying set, makes it say, " The sun 
set before we started." 

(8) A phrase: "He has lived here since before the war." "A spirit 
came from above the clouds." "A stream runs from under the rocks." 
The prepositions since and from in such cases really govern the phrases 
which follow them ; but I think it preferable, because so much more 
convenient, to call since before, from above, from under, etc., compound 
prepositions. 

594. The Antecedent of a preposition is the word which 
the phrase limits. 

595. It may be — 

(1) A verb : " The book lies on the table." 

(2) A noun : " We saw the city in flames." 

(3) A pronoun : " Woe be unto you of little faith ! " 

(4) An adjective : "All reverence to the heads hoary with age ! " 

(5) An adverb : " I have read the book sufficiently for my purpose." 

(6) An interjection : " Alas for maiden, alas for judge ! " 



150 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

596. The prepositions most commonly used are given in 
the following, — 

List : A, aboard, about, above, according to, across, after, against, 
along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, or round, as to, at, athwart, 
before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between, betwixt, beyond, 
but, by, concerning, down, during, except, save, for, from, in, into, not- 
withstanding, of, on, out of, since, till, until, through, throughout, to, 
toward, towards, under, up, with, within, without. 



PASSING OF PKEP0SITI0NS. 

597. To parse a preposition is to state the part of speech 
to which it belongs, and name the object and antecedent 
between which it shows the relation. 

598. Model. 

(1) Preposition. (2) Relation. (3) Rule. 

(1) He came from the city. 

"From" prep., and shows the relation between city and came, R. XIII. 

599. -ft i s generally very easy to determine the object of a preposition, 
and often difficult to find the antecedent ; but the correct answers to two 
questions will always give both. (1) Put the interrogative what after the 
preposition to find the object; then (2) put the interrogative what before 
the phrase to find the antecedent. For example : i L Frantically they dashed 
that rapid torrent through." (1) Through what ? Through the torrent. 
(2) What through the torrent ? Dashed through the torrent. 

A. — (1) He went with us. 

(2) It fell through the air to the ground. 

(3) Put it on .the table or into your pocket. 

(4) They stayed until night under shelter. 

(5) He went from St. Louis, across the plains, to 

California. 

(6) Light moves in straight lines, and in all direc- 

tions from the point of emission. 



THE PREPOSITION. 



151 



B. — ■ (1) Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. — Young. 

(2) All came but Mary. 

(3) To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. — Bryant. 

(4) Into the mouth of hell rode the six hundred. 

(5) I left before he came. 

(6) You have changed since I saw you. 

(7) I shall go after he leaves. 

(8) She will wait till you come. 

(9) They will leave you ere you are aware. 
(10) You must stay until the train arrives. 

\. (11) The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South 
Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her revolutionary and other 
merits, meets my hearty concurrence. — Webster. 

600. Outline of the Preposition. 



la. Kinds. 


6c. An interjection. 


lb. Simple. 


2b. Object. 


2b. Compound. 


lc. A noun. 


36. Complex. 


2c. A pronoun. 


2a. Terms of relation. 


3c. An adverb. 


lb. Antecedent. 


4c. An adjective. 


lc. A verb. 


5c. An infinitive. 


2c. A noun. 


6c. A participle. 


3c. A pronoun. 


7c. A clause. 


4c. An adjective. 


8c. A phrase. 


5c. An adverb. 





SYNTAX OP PEEP0SITI0NS. 

601. Rule XIII. — A preposition shows the relation of 
its object to the word which the phrase limits. 

602. When the object of a preposition is omitted, it usually becomes 
an adverb, but sometimes an adjective: "It flew up, around, and down 
again." " It overlooked the plains beloiv." 

603. One preposition may have several antecedents ; as, " They wash, 
iron, cook, eat, and sleep in the same room." 



152 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

604. One antecedent may have several prepositions ; as, "A govern- 
ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." 

605. One preposition may have several objects; as, "A positive law 
against all fraud, falsehood, and violence." 

606. One object may have several prepositions ; as, " He ran up, down, 
and across the fta^." u He approved o/, and voted for, the measure." 
Better, " He approved of the measure and voted for it." 

607. All errors in the use of prepositions may he reduced 
to — 

(1) Choice. (3) Insertion or Omission. 

(2) Position. (4) Repetition. 

I. CHOICE. 

608. Great care should be taken always to select that 
preposition which expresses precisely the relation intended. 
In doubtful cases, the dictionary should be consulted for 
the object, the antecedent, and the preposition itself. 

609. Exercises to be Corrected and then Parsed : — 

(1) The sultry evening was followed with a rain. 

(2) He died with a fever (means both died). 

(3) The soil is adapted for wheat. 

(4) Congress consists in a Senate and House of Representatives. 

(5) Of what does happiness consist ? 

(6) Religion and Christianity may differ widely with each other. 

(7) I differ from you in opinion. 

(8) Charles dropped his dollar in the creek. 

(9) The persecutions of the Quakers were barbarous. 

(10) He went out of a fine morning. 

(11) I have been to New Orleans. 

(12) He divided his estate between his son, daughter, and nephew. 

II. POSITION. 

610. Phrases should be so placed in the sentence as to 
make it correct, clear, and elegant. 



THE PREPOSITION. 153 

611. As its name implies, the preposition should gener- 
ally be placed immediately before its object. 

612^. Exercises to be Corrected and then Parsed : — 

(1) We saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose. 

(2) We heard a lecture on teaching geography at 10 o'clock. 

(3) These verses were written by a young man who has long since 
lain in his grave for amusement. 

(4) Wanted. — A young man to take care of horses of a religious turn 
of mind. 

(5) He went to see his friends on horseback. 

III. INSERTION AND OMISSION. 

613. Prepositions should not be inserted so as to destroy 
the proper connection of the different parts of the sentence. 

614. Prepositions should not be omitted when required 
by the sense. 

615. Exercises to be Corrected and then Parsed : — 

(1) It was in vain to remonstrate. 

(2) It was to your brother to whom I was indebted. 

(3) What use is it to me ? 

(4) She could not refrain shedding tears. 

(5) San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. 

(6) I admit of what you say. 

(7) Many talented men have deserted from the party. 

(8) California is not more noted for its gold than bears. 

(9) He was right in that which you blame him. 

(10) Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 

IV. REPETITION. 

616. A preposition having several objects must be used 
before one only, or each, of them. 

617. To repeat the preposition before each object renders 
the sentence sometimes inelegant, sometimes forcible. 

618. Exercises to be Corrected and then Parsed : — 

(1) He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. 

(2) By industry, by economy, and by good luck, he accumulated a 
fortune. 



154 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

619. A Conjunction is a word whose only office is to connect 
sentences or parts of a sentence. 

620. A conjunction may join — 

(1) Two independent sentences; as, " Young heads are giddy, and 
young hearts are warm." 

(2) Two dependent sentences; as, "The child is not happy, because 
its father is a drunkard and its mother is dead." 

(3) Two words; as, "Mary and Alice are kind and obedient." 

(4) Two phrases ; as, " The boy ran out of the house and into the corn- 
field." " We should try to learn all we can and to remember all we 
learn." 

621. The conjunction is not the only connective. Relative pronouns 
and conjunctive adverbs are connectives, but they each have also a modi- 
fying use ; the conjunction has no modifying force in the sentence. 

622. The conjunction, like the preposition, is a relation word, because 
it always indicates the relation which the parts connected bear to each 
other. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

623. Conjunctions may be most conveniently classified 
upon two different bases : Use and Meaning. 

624. I. As to Use, conjunctions are either Co-ordinate or 
Subordinate. 

625. A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one that joins elements 
having the same grammatical construction. 

626. A Subordinate Conjunction is one that joins a subor- 
dinate sentence to some part of the principal. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 155 

627. The thing of chief importance is to be able to determine in every 
instance whether the conjunction is Co-ordinate or Subordinate. There 
are few* if any grammatical principles of more practical value to the 
student than this. 

628. A co-ordinate conjunction may join two words, two phrases, or 
two sentences; as, " We saw Samuel and Peter." " She went to Phila- 

. delphia and to Brooklyn." " Mary rode, but Philip walked." 

629. A subordinate conjunction always joins a subordinate sentence to 
depart of the principal ; as, " He came to the front because he wanted to 
hear." " He was silent, for fte &ftew? not what to say." " She was so slow 
that we missed the train." 

630. II. As to Meaning, conjunctions are — 

(1) Copulative, denoting addition; as, and, also, likewise. "John 
will work, and I shall help him." 

(2) Adversative or Disjunctive, denoting opposition ; as, but, neverthe- 
less, whereas. " We went, but they did not go." 

(3) Correlative, those used in pairs ; as, both . . . and, either . . . or, 
neither . . . nor, whether . . . or. u Both the child and its mother were there." 

(4) Alternative, those used to denote one of two alternatives ; as, or, 
nor. " George or his brother will help you." 

(5) Casual, one introducing a casual clause; as, because, since, for. 
" He came because he wanted to see me." 

(6) Conditional, one introducing a conditional clause; as, if. "I 
shall pay him if he insists upon it." 

631. And, that, for, and some other conjunctions are often used 
merely as introductory words, without any connecting power; as, " And 
it came to pass." " That he did it is doubted." " I believe that he did 
it." " For what shall it profit a man ? " Such words should be parsed 
as introductory expletives, according to E. XVIII. Or, if it is thought 
preferable, and and for may sometimes be parsed as joining what they 
introduce to some preceding sentence or word. 

632. For convenience, such correlative words as either . . . or, neither 
. . . nor, both . . . and, are commonly parsed as correlative conjunctions; 
but in reality the words either, neither, and both are only expletives, hav- 
ing no force in the sentence but to introduce the parts that are joined by 
the following or, nor, and both. 

633. Conjunctions introducing clauses that express cause, conclusion, 
or effect, are sometimes called illative conjunctions; as, "Learn of me, 
for I am meek and lowly in heart." "I think, therefore I am." "He 
was honest, hence he was trusted." 



156 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

634. In studying or teaching the conjunction, keep in mind that the 
two things absolutely indispensable are, (1) What does it connect f (2) Is 
it co-ordinate or subordinate ? 

635. Model for Parsing of Conjunction. 

(1) Species. (3) Sub-class. (5) Rule. 

(2) Class. (4) Construction. 

Co-ordinate. 

(1) Oxygen and hydrogen are gases. (Words.) 

(2) He strove with all his powers and to a noble end. (Phrases.) 

(3) You may walk into the garden, but you must not pluck the flowers. 
{Sentences.) 

(4) Plato was both a philosopher and a. poet. (Correlative.) 

Subordinate. 

(5) His friends trusted him because he was honorable. 

(6) Although he tries, he always fails. 

"And," conj., co-or., cop., and connects oxygen and hydrogen, R. XII. 
"And" conj., co-or., cop., and joins with all his powers and to a noble 

end, R. XII. 
"But," conj., co-or., disj., and joins you may walk into the garden and 

you must not pluck the flowers, R. XII. 
"Because," conj., subor., causal, and joins he was honorable to trusted, 

R. XII. 
"Although," conj., subor., disj., and joins he tries to fails, R. XII. 

636. Some prefer, and on good grounds, to consider such sentences as 
the last, compound, and call although a co-ordinate conjunction. 

637. Selections for Parsing. 

A. — (1) Carthage and Rome were rival powers. 

(2) She came, but he remained at home. 

(3) We all must work or starve. 

(4) I will work if he will pay me. 

(5) He gave me both advice and money. 

(6) Out of the yard and up the street he rushed. 

(7) We must either hasten our march or return by 

night. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 157 

B. — (1) And now let us proceed. 

(2) That you are mistaken is evident. 

(3) Aristides was both just and wise. 

(4) Not truth, but falsehood, fears the open day. 

(5) Scrooge went to bed again, and thought it over and over and 
over. — Dickens. 

(6) Men must work and women must weep, 

Though storms be hidden and waters deep. — Kingsley. 

(7) For none made sweeter melody 

Than did the poor blind boy. — Wordsworth. 

(8) Whether the thing was green or blue. 

(9) Men must be taught as if you taught them not. 

(10) Gold is more valuable but less useful than iron. 

(11) He treated me as if he believed that I was a thief. 

(12) He looks as if tired. 

(13) Johnson went to Congress, while his children went to the peni- 
tentiary and the prison. 

(14) I believe him, because he is truthful. 

(15) He was silent, for he knew not what to say. 

638. Outline of the Conjunction. 

la. Classes as to Use. 2b. Adversative. 

lb. Co-ordinate. 3b. Correlative. 

2b. Subordinate. 45. Alternative. 

2a. Classes as to Meaning. 56. Causal. 

16. Copulative. 66. Conditional. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

639. Rule XII. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
and sentences. 

640. I. A co-ordinate conjunction may connect — 

(1) Two independent sentences ; as, " John went, and Mary came.'''' 

(2) Two dependent sentences ; as, u I shall go if he invites me and they 
come after me." 

(3) Two prepositional phrases; as, " Up the mountain and through 
the glen, he takes his silent way." 

(4) Two infinitive phrases ; as, " He tries to be honest and to be indus- 
trious." 



158 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(5) Two participial phrases; as, "I saw him standing on the bank 
and looking into the water." 

(6) Two nouns or pronouns, either with or without modifiers ; as, 
"He and /went." " The old man and his little girl came." 

(7) Two verbs, with or without modifiers ; as, " He went and returned." 
" He bought a book and read it through.''' 1 

(8) Two adjectives; as, "The man is wise and great." 

(9) Two adverbs ; as, " Slowly and silently came the night." 

641. II. A subordinate conjunction always joins a subor- 
dinate sentence to some part of the principal. It may join 
its subordinate sentence to — 

(1) A verb ; as, " He learns because he studies diligently." 

(2) An adjective ; as, "His conduct was such that he was dismissed." 

(3) An adverb ; as, " He was so slow that they all left him" 

642. The parts connected by a co-ordinate conjunction must be in the 
same grammatical construction; thus, if one part is an adjective, the 
other part must either be an adjective, or some expression used as an 
adjective ; and if one part be a noun, object of a certain verb, the other 
part must be used as the object of the same verb. Generally, verbs 
joined by co-ordinate connectives should have the same mode and tense. 

643. The subordinate conjunction although is sometimes said to join 
a participle to the noun it modifies ; but the ellipsis must always be sup- 
plied ; as, "The man, although [he was] running rapidly, played the 
piece perfectly." 

644. The word that is not a connective when it introduces a subjective, 
objective, predicative, or appositive element ; as, " That the stars are suns 
is the belief of astronomers." "Astronomers believe that the stars are 
suns." "The astronomers' belief is, that the stars are suns." "The 
belief that the stars are suns is held by astronomers." 

645. The conjunction than sometimes follows the words else, other, 
and rather, but it nearly always joins a subordinate sentence to an adjec- 
tive or an adverb in the comparative degree ; as, " He is better than I am." 
" He walks faster than she does." 

646. When than introduces a subordinate sentence, limiting two words, 
care should be taken that they both be in the comparative degree ; as, 
" He is older and wiser than I." Do not say, "He is as old and wiser 
than I." 

647. 1^ is claimed by good grammarians that the co-ordinate conjunc- 
tion always joins two sentences. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 159 

648. The word or has two uses : (1) To come between two alterna- 
tives ; as, " A king or queen always rules in England." (2) To precede 
an explanatory term; as, "A sovereign, or supreme governor, always 
rules in England." 

649. When a series of words in the same construction is used, the 
connective is placed only before the last; as, "We saw John, James, 
Mary, and Peter." 

650. Neither and either should always introduce parts that are con- 
nected by the corresponding nor and or ; as, "Neither he nor his friends 
were present." u It neither improves the understanding nor delights the 
heart." u He neither improves his farm nor his mind," should be, "He 
improves neither his farm nor his mind." Many good writers are entirely 
too careless with their correlatives ; but the student of composition must 
remember that whatever excellence such writers possess must not be 
attributed to their carelessness. 

651. Exercises. 

I. Parse all the conjunctions. 

II. Re-write incorrect sentences^ making the necessary 
changes. 

(1)1 shall visit him this summer, because he desires it. 

(2) That we may fully understand the subject, let us consider the 
following propositions. 

(3) Neither flattery nor threats could move him. 

(4) Our judgments should neither be hasty nor unjust. 

(5) John the Baptist came, eating neither bread nor drinking wine. 

(6) Tones are different, both from emphasis and pauses. 

(7) He is taller, but not so old as his brother. 

(8) He was as eloquent, and perhaps even more eloquent than 
Webster. 

(9) It is as good, or better, than mine. 

(10) We may, and ought to do good to others. 

(11) This is consistent neither with logic nor history. 

(12) There is no one so wise but he can learn something more. 

(13) I do not know whether he is in Boston or New York. 

(14) Read distinctly, that you may be understood. 

(15) He is honest, but his judgment is poor. 

(16) If you are going, then he will go. 

(17) No one will dispute the fact that Edison is a great inventor. 



160 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 






THE INTERJECTION. 

652. An Interjection is any exclamatory word used to 
express some emotion of the mind; as, " Oh!" "Pshaw!" 
" Alas ! " 

653. T^e word interjection means thrown in ; that is, an interjection 
is thrown in at the first, the last, or between the parts of a sentence, with- 
out being grammatically related to any part of it. 

654. Interjections have no classes and no properties. 

655. To parse an interjection, simply name its part of speech and refer 
to Rule XVII. . 

SYNTAX OF INTEKJECTIONS. 

656. Rule XVII. — An interjection does not depend for 
grammatical construction upon any other word. 

Bemark. — Interjections might be classified according to the nature of 
the feelings they express, into — 

(1) Joy : eigh, hey, io. 

(2) Sorrow : oh, ah, hoo, alas, alack, lackaday, welladay, or xoelaway. 

(3) Wonder: heigh, ha, strange, indeed. 

(4) Wish, or earnestness : (generally followed by a noun) . 

(5) Praise : well-done, good, bravo. 

(6) Surprise with disapproval : whew, hoity-toity, hoida, zounds, what. 

(7) Pain, or fear : oh, ooh, ah, eh, dear. 

(8) Contempt : fudge, pugh, poh, pshaw, pish, tush, tut, humph. 

(9) Aversion : foh, faugh, fie, fy, foy. 

(10) Expulsion : out, off, shoo, whew, begone, avaunt, aroynt. 

(11) Desire for attention : ho, soho, what-ho, hollo, holla hallo, halloo, 
boy, ahoy. 

(12) Exultation: ah, aha, huzza, hey, heyday, hurrah. 

(13) Mirth : ha-ha-ha, he-he-he, te-hee-he. 

(14) Salutation : welcome, hail, all-hail. 

(15) Call for attention : ho, lo, la, law, look, see, behold, hark. 



MISCELLANEOUS SELECTIONS. 161 

(16) Call for silence : hush, hist, whist, 's£, aw, mum. 

(17) Dread, or horror: oh, ah, hah, tohat. 

(18) Languor, or weariness : heigh-ho, heigh-ho-hum. 

(19) Desire for stop : hold, soft, avast, whoa. 

(20) Feeling caused by the thought of parting : farewell, adieu, good- 
by, good-day, good- night. 

(21) Feeling that follows a discovery : oho, aha, ay ay. 

(22) Feeling that prompts interrogation : eh f ha ? hey ? 

(a) Do not use interjections in the absence of corresponding emotions. 



MISCELLANEOUS SELECTIONS. 

(1) He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty ; and he that 
ruleth his spirit, than he that taketh a city. 

(2) Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do. 

(3) Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have 
not charity, I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal. 

(4) Boys flying kites haul in their white- winged birds ; 
But you can't do that when you're flying words. 

(5) Be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life. 

(6) Far less of wealth should we behold, 

Far less of happiness secure, 
If every second mound were gold, 
And every first, a diamond pure. — A. E. Frye. 

(7) The cowslip startles in meadows green, 

The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice, 
And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 
To be some happy creature's palace. — Lowell. 

(8) Day hath put on his jacket, and around 

His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. — Holmes. 



162 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



INFINITE VERBS. 

INFINITIVES AND PAKTIOIPLES. 

657. Infinite verbs are those whose form is not modified by the person 
and number of their subjects. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

658. The infinitive is a verb. Every infinitive has a subject. The 
subject is in the objective case when it is not also the subject of a finite 
verb. 

659. As a verb, every infinitive is transitive or intransitive, attributive 
or copulative, regular or irregular ; and has the properties of other verbs, 
— voice, mode, and tense. 

660. 1^ differs from other verbs only in, — 

(1) It does not assert, but assumes, action, being, or state. 

(2) Its form is never modified by the person and number of its subject. 

661. The infinitive may be modified by an adverbial element the same 
as finite verbs; as, "The children came to play by the roadside." And 
when transitive it may govern an object ; as, "I like to read history.'''' 

662. Like other verbs, the infinitive, when copulative, may be followed 
by a predicate noun or adjective ; as, " We want her to be a musician." 
" I believe him to be honest.'''' 

663. Construction of Infinitives. 

In addition to its verbal nature, every infinitive performs the office of 
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. This is called its construction or use. 
An infinitive has the construction of a noun, when it is used as a noun is 
used ; the construction of an adjective, when it is used as an adjective is 
used; and the construction of an adverb, when it is used as an adverb 
is used. 

664. Construction of a Noun. 

The principal uses of nouns are, as the subject, predicate, and object 
of verbs, and as the object of prepositions. Whenever an infinitive per- 



INFINITE VERBS. 163 

forms any of these offices, or any other that nouns may perform, it has 
the construction or use of a noun; as, " To live is to die." "I like to 
study." 

665. Construction of an Adjective. 

" He gave me permission to use his tools " ; to use modifies the noun 
permission. It therefore has the construction of an adjective. 

666. An infinitive may be used as a direct adjective ; as, " Time to 
come is called future" ; or as a predicate adjective; as, "Gas is to be 
found in Indiana." 

667. Construction of an Adverb. 

The principal uses of adverbs are to modify verbs, adjectives, or other 
adverbs in such a way as to answer the questions, How ? How much ? 
Where ? When ? Why ? etc. Whenever an infinitive has any of these 
uses, it has the construction of an adverb. An infinitive with the con- 
struction of an adverb usually limits a verb, as an adverb of purpose ; as, 
(1) " We came to learn" ; but it may limit an adjective; as, (2) "Apples 
are good to eat " ; or an adverb ; as, (3) " He is too weak to walk." 

668. The parsing of an infinitive consists in naming the classes of 
verbs to which it belongs ; regular or irregular ; copulative or attribu- 
tive ; transitive or intransitive ; naming in order its properties, voice, 
mode, and tense ; and stating definitely its use, whether of a noun, adjec- 
tive, or adverb. 

663. An infinitive may be used as a noun in the nominative case j as, 
" To sin is to suffer " ; in the objective case ; as, " He wants to go" ; and 
in the absolute case ; as, " To kill ! dreadful thought ! " There are sev- 
eral absolute constructions of the infinitive, as may be seen in the outline, 
but many infinitives which seem to be used independently have the con- 
struction of an adverb, and limit some word understood ; as, "To be 
honest with you, I was mistaken." " To be" has the construction of an 
adverb, and limits acknowledged or confess understood. The infinitive 
is never found in the possessive. 

670. The sign is not expressed with the infinitive after the active verbs 
bid, make, need, hear, let, see, feel, and dare; and sometimes not after 
find, have, help, please, and equivalents of see. When several infinitives 
are used in the same construction, and are joined by co-ordinate connec- 
tives, the sign is generally used only with the first. 



164 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 

671. Most that has been said concerning the infinitive is 
true also of the participle. It, too, is a verb, and has the 
construction, or use, of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs; as, 
"Seeing is believing" (noun). "The man speaking is 
my father" (adjective). "He. came stumbling along" 
(adverb). 

672. There are three participles : Imperfect, Loving; 
Perfect, Loved; Preperfect, Having loved. 

673. Participles are like infinitives in the following : — 

(1) Both are verbs. 

(2) Both are unlimited by person and number. 

(3) Both assume and not assert action, being, or state. 

(4) Both express time relatively and not absolutely. 

(5) Both have the uses of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

674. Participles are unlike infinitives in the follow- 
ing:— 

(1) The participle may become a noun; as, " Painting is one of the 
fine arts " ; or an adjective ; as, " Howling wolves " ; while the infinitive 
never loses its verbal nature. 

(2) The infinitive usually has a sign ; the participle has not. 

675. Note the difference in — 

" The holding wolf." (Adjective.) 
" The howling of the wolf." (Noun.) 

u The wolf howling in the forest." (Participle, with the construction 
of an adjective.) 

676. Subject of a Participle is usually in the possessive 
case or nominative absolute, but it is in the nominative 
when it is the same as that of a finite verb in the same 
sentence. 

677. The Complement of a copulative participle is in the 
same case as its subject. There is but one exception to 



INFINITE VERBS. 165 

this rule : When the subject is possessive, the predicate is 
nominative ; as, " His being a farmer is no reason he should 
be ignorant." His, the subject of the participle being, is 
possessive; but farmer, the complement, is nominative. 

678. When limited by the article the, or directly by a 
common adjective, the participle becomes a verbal noun ; 
as, " The tolling of the bell awakened us." " Ordinary 
walking is not tiresome." 

679. In many cases it becomes a noun without the ad- 
jective ; as, " She understands painting and rhetoric" 

680. When a participle is placed immediately before 
the noun it limits, it becomes merely an adjective ; as, 
"Howling wolves." "Raging storms." 

681. Parsing of Infinitives and Participles. 

(1) I want to learn. 

(2) Studying algebra is developing the reason. 

(3) The man standing there is my father. 

(4) Time to come is called future. 

(5) He remained to assist us. 

(6) They came hurrying along. 

"To learn" is a v., intrans., attrib., reg., act, inf., pres., with the con- 
strue, of a n., obj. of "want," R. XVI. and IV. 

"Developing" is a v., trans., attrib., reg., act., part., pres., with the con- 
strue, of a n., used as the complement of "is," R. XVI. and VI. 

"To come" is a v., intrans., attrib., irreg., act., infin., pres., with the 
construe, of an adj. and lim. "Time," R. XVI. and X. 

"To assist" is a v., trans., attrib., reg., act., inf., pres., with the construe, 
of an adv. of purpose, and lim. "remained," R. XVI. and XI. 

"Hurrying" is a v., intrans., attrib., reg., act., part., pres., with the con- 
strue, of an adv. of manner, and lim. " came," R. XVI. and XI. 

682. Exercise. 

Write in full the parsing of infinitives and participles, 
and give the oral parsing of all the other words.. 



166 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

A. — (1) To play is pleasant. 

(2) She likes to rest. 

(3) We have come to see you. 

(4) I have meat to eat that ye know not of. 

(5) Resting near the rippling stream, he sat and 

mused. 

(6) Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

(7) Avoid keeping company with the depraved. 

(8) He is to be blamed ftfr keeping us waiting so 

long. 

(9) I have come to see you, but you are ready to go. 

(10) He appeared to comply. 

(11) Your mistake is to be deplored. 

(12) He is to blame. 

(13) I am sorry to hear it. 

(14) Bees are skilful in building their hives. 

(15) A miser is to be pitied. 

(16) 'Tis better to have loved and lost than never to 

have loved at all. 

(17) His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay. 

(18) To be virtuous is to be happy. 

(19) Seeing is believing. 

(20) I remember to have seen William at the rink. 

(21) Philosophy teaches us to endure afflictions. 

(22) Learn to labor and to wait. 

(23) It is painful to see an animal suffering. 

(24) His having failed is not surprising. 

(25) Born to a crown, Louis XVI. died on a scaffold. 

(26) What we always put off doing, clearly we shall 

never do. 

B. — (1) Marley was dead, to begin with. (2) To tell the truth, I do 
not like him. (3) We are commanded to love our enemies. (4) I feel 
the wind blow. (5) I saw him do it. (6) Did you hear him speak ? 



INFINITE VERBS. 167 

(7) They urged him to become their leader. (8) It did not seem to be he. 
(9) He cannot but accept the offer. (10) I had rather be a dog. (11) You 
had better go home. (12) They did nothing but wander about all day. 
(13) We found him ready to help us. (14) The train delayed by the 
storm had but just arrived. (15) The roaring thunder frightened us. 
(16) The thunder roaring frightened us. (17) The roaring of the thunder 
frightened us. [To distinguish a verbal noun, a participle, and a par- 
ticipial adjective, see Section 657.] (18) If eyes were made for see- 
ing, then beauty is its own excuse for being. (19) I am about to 
starve, but I prefer starving rather than being a slave. (20) The 
well is said to be deep. (21) His desire to teach is gratified. (22) To 
die, to cease to exist, is dreaded by all. (23) The train is about to start. 
(24) He thinks it not wrong to lie to escape punishment. (25) To stand 
having been forbidden, all kept their seats. (26) To be or not to be, 
that's the question. (27) To murder your child ! Horrible thought ! 
(28) He is old enough to do better. (29) He is too brave to run. 
(30) It is better to give than to receive. (31) It is not to die to sleep. 
(32) I want to be a farmer. (33) I sometimes hold it half a sin to put in 
words the grief I feel. (34) It is not always easy to make ourselves just 
what we wish to be. (35) I told him to try to learn to be a sailor. 
(36) Who would not give a trifle to prevent what he would give a thou- 
sand worlds to cure ? 

[Write sentences in which participles have the same constructions as 
the above infinitives.] 

683. Outline of Infinite Verbs. 

la. Classes. 
lb. Infinitive. 
2b. Participle. 

lc. Imperfect, Loving. 
2c. Perfect, Loved. 
3c. Preperfect, Having loved. 
2a. Properties : Same as those of the finite verbs, except person and 

number. 
3a. Construction. 
lb. Of a noun. 
lc. In the nominative case. 
Id. Subject of a finite verb : 
To steal is base. 
Stealing is base. 



168 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

2d. Complement of a finite copulative verb : 
To live is to die. 
Living is dying. 
3d. In apposition. 
le. With a word : 

The task, to sweep, was imposed. 
The task, sweeping, was imposed. 
9 2e. With a phrase : 

To shuffle off this mortal coil, to die, is dreaded by all. 
Shuffling off this mortal coil, dying, is dreaded by. all. 
Se. With a sentence : 

That he should use profane language, to swear, surprised 
them all. (In all such cases it is the entire abridged 
sentence, [for him'] to swear, that is in apposition with 
the entire complete sentence.) 
That he should use profane language, [his] swearing, sur- 
prised them all. 
4td. Complement of an inf. copula, whose subject is same as that 
of the finite verb : 
To kill appears to be to destroy. 
Killing appears to be destroying. 
2c. In the objective case. 

Id. Object of a transitive verb : 
She likes to study. 
She likes studying. 
2d. Object of a preposition : 

He can do nothing but to study. 
I heard of his leaving the town. 
3d. Subject of an infinitive : 

He thought to work to be disgraceful. 
He thought working to be disgraceful. 
4td. Complement of an infinitive copula : 

He thought to study to be te s learn. 
He thought studying to be learning, 
bd. In apposition. 
le. With a noun. 

He loves his task to teach children. 
He loves his task teaching children. 
2e. With an infinitive phrase : 

His associates taught him to lie, to tell falsehoods. 
His associates taught him lying, telling falsehoods. 



INFINITE VERBS. 169 

3c With a sentence : 

He thought it impossible that Washington could lie, [for 
him to speak falsely.] 
3c. In the absolute case. 
Id. By exclamation : 

To kill, how dreadful ! 
Killing, how dreadful ! 
2d. By pleonasm : 

To be, or not to be, that is the question. 
Being, or not being, that is the question. 
3d. With a participle : (Subject of a participle.) 

To go being considered impossible, we remained at home. 
Going being considered impossible, we remained at home. 
4d. By inscription : 
"To rent." 
"Bepawing." 
hd. In apposition. 
le. With a word : 

Delightful task, to rear the tender thought ! 
Delightful task, rearing the tender thought ! 
2e. With a phrase : 

To kill, to take human life, how terrible ! 
Killing, taking human life, how terrible ! 
6d. Complement of a participial copula, whose subject is absolute : 
To gamble being to steal, we did not gamble. 
Gambling being stealing, we did not gamble. 
2b. Of an adjective. 
lc. Direct: 

Flee from the wrath to come. 
Flee from the dangers threatening to destroy us. 
2c. Predicate : 

The goods are to be sold. 
She seems well instructed. 
36. Of an adverb. 
lc. Limiting a verb : 

The boy ran to assist his brother. 
The boy came running. 
2c. Limiting an adjective : 

He is anxious to go. 
2c. Limiting an adverb : 

He is well enough to work. 



170 COMMON SCHOOL GKAMMAR. 

684. Syntax of Infinitives and Participles. 

685. Rule XVI. — Infinitives and participles are used 
as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

NOUN. 

To study diligently means success. 
Studying diligently means success. 

ADJECTIVE. 

Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star ? 
The little girl standing there is my niece. 

ADVERB. 

He came to learn. 

He came stumbling along. 

686. The infinitive usually has the construction of a noun or of an 
adverb of purpose ; the participle is very seldom used as an adverb. 

687. There is but little liability to error in using the infinitive and 
participle according to this rule. Great care should be taken, however, 
not to misuse the tenses of the infinitives. Remember that the time of 
the present infinitive or participle is the same as that of the finite verb in 
the same sentence, and that the time of the perfect infinitive or participle 
is always previous to that of the finite verb. Thus, I may say correctly 
either, "I believe you to be sincere," or "I believe you to have been 
sincere," according as you are sincere now, or were in the past; but I 
cannot say, " I wanted to have gone," " I hoped to have heard him," etc. 



ABRIDGMENT. 171 



ABRIDGMENT. 

688. A Simple Sentence may be changed to one that is 
Complex by expanding any one of its words or phrases into 
a proposition. Thus, " A wise man will always be sought 
by those desiring to learn" is a simple sentence ; but if the 
word wise and the phrase desiring to learn be expanded 
into propositions, we shall have the complex sentence, "A 
man who is wise will always be sought by those who desire 
to learn" which expresses the same thought. 

689. This process may be called Expansion. 

690. A Complex Sentence may be changed to one that 
is simple by contracting its subordinate propositions into 
words or phrases. Thus, " Dr. Franklin, who was the pro- 
jector of many useful institutions, was bred a printer," 
" Because some truths are difficult of comprehension, the 
weak reject them," "He came that he might see the dis- 
tinguished statesman" are complex sentences ; but we may 
make them simple by contracting their subordinate clauses : 
"Dr. Franklin, the projector of many useful institutions, 
was bred a printer," " Some truths being difficult of com- 
prehension, the weak reject them," " He came to see the 
distinguished statesman" 

691. The process by which subordinate clauses are 
changed into equivalent words or phrases is called 
Abridgment. 

GENEEAL PEMTOIPLES OF ABEIDGMENT. 

692. The abridged part has the same construction in the simple sen- 
tence as the clause in the complex sentence ; that is, it is either substan- 
tive, adjective, or adverbial. 



172 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAE. 

693. The best way to determine the construction of a clause is to 
observe the construction of the word or phrase into which it may be 
abridged ; and to determine the construction of a word or phrase, observe 
the construction of the clause into which it may be expanded. 

694. It wu l ^ e observed from the example above that it is only the 
principal elements (subject and predicate) that are changed in abridging 
a clause. The subordinate elements are joined to the abridged form 
without alteration. 

695. Kinds of Abridgment. — Since the thought of a clause may be 
expressed by a word or phrase, there arise two kinds of abridgment: 
word abridgment and phrase abridgment. 

696. The basis of a word abridgment may be a noun, an adjective, or 
a participle, as may be seen from abridging the following: "Jones, who 
was our doctor, died." "The boy who is studious will learn." "The 
man who is playing with the children is my uncle." 

697. Clauses denoting time or reason are abridged by using participles 
and their subjects absolutely. Thus, " When the sun had risen, we pur- 
sued our journey," and "We were in time because the train was late," 
are the same in thought as, " The sun having risen, we pursued our jour- 
ney," and "The train being late, we were in time." 

698. The basis of a phrase abridgment may be a prepositional or an 
infinitive phrase. Thus, "A man who is generous," "A man of gener- 
osity," and "He lied that he might escape punishment,' 1 '' "He lied to 
escape punishment." 

699. The infinitive phrase is employed chiefly to abridge clauses 
introduced by that. 

700. The infinitive phrase is used also to abridge certain adjective 
clauses introduced by a preposition and a relative; as, "Send me some 
money with which I may buy my dinner " = " Send me some money with 
which to buy my dinner." " For which to strive," "At which to shoot," 
" On which to depend," etc., are contractions or abridgments in which is 
found a peculiar use of the relative ; that is, it does not join to its antecedent 
a limiting clause. The relative in such cases relates or refers to its ante- 
cedent, but does not join anything to it ; for the infinitive limits the 
antecedent of the relative, and an infinitive does not require a connective 
to join it to the word which it limits. The relative itself is the object in 
the prepositional phrase which limits the infinitive as an adverbial 
element. 

701. Certain indirect interrogative or responsive clauses used as sub- 
stantives are abridged by omitting the subject, changing the predicate to 
an infinitive, and placing before it the interrogative word; as, "I know 



ABRIDGMENT. 173 

not whom I may ask " = u I know not whom to ask." In the same man- 
ner we have what to do, where to look, whom to send, when to begin, how 
to proceed, etc. But it must be understood that the words whom, what, 
where, when, how, etc., are not connectives either in the expanded or in 
the abridged sentence, for no interrogative word is ever a connective. 



CASE OF SUBJECT IN ABEIDGED PEOPOSITIONS. 

702. If the subject of a subordinate clause refers to 
the same as the subject of the principal clause, it is not 
retained in the abridgment ; as, — 

" I desire that I may learn " = "I desire to learn." (See R. I. and II.) 

703. When the subject of the subordinate clause does 

not refer to the same as the subject of the principal clause, 

it is retained in the abridgment, and is in the nominative 

absolute case, the possessive, or the objective ; as, — 

" WJien shame is lost, all virtue is gone" = "Shame being lost, all 
virtue is gone." "I heard that he stole the money" = "I heard of his 
stealing the money." " I desire that he be a merchant" = " I desire him to 
be a merchant." (See Rules L, II., and III.) 

CASE OF COMPLEMENT IN ABEIDGED PEOPOSITIONS. 

704. The complement of a copulative verb is either an 
adjective or a noun, or some expression so used. 

705. If it is an adjective, it will remain a predicate ad- 
jective, and modify the subject of the verb in the abridged 
proposition. 

706. If it is a noun or pronoun, its case will always be 
governed by Rule VI. : A noun or pronoun used as the 
complement of a copulative verb is in the same case as its 
subject. 

Exception. — When the subject of a copulative participle 
is possessive, the complement is nominative. 



174 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

707. Illustration of Rule. 

"If 7 were she." "/wished to be she." She in either sentence is 
nominative; so is I the subject. "He wished me to be her." Me, the 
subject of to be, is objective, and her, the complement, is objective. " He 
being a scholar, we asked him his opinion." He, the subject of the parti- 
ciple, is in the nominative absolute, and scholar, the complement, is in 
the same case. If a pronoun should be used in the same construction as 
scholar, its form would show it to be either nominative or nominative abso- 
lute ; and since no reason appears for supposing this an exception to the 
general rule stated above, the complements of all such participles are in 
the nominative absolute case. 

708. I n abridging certain adjective clauses, like " Here is a man who 
is called a thief," the relative which is the subject is dropped, and nothing 
appears in the abridged form to take its place ; but the noun which is the 
complement is put in the same case as the word upon which the clause 
depends. Thus, the above sentence abridged would read, ' ' Here is a 
man called a thief." Man is in the nominative case, and thief is also 
nominative. This, however, is no exception to Rule VI. ; for man, the sub- 
ject of is, is also the subject of called. A substantive may be the subject 
both of a finite and an infinite verb in the same sentence ; or it may be 
the object of a verb or preposition and the subject of a participle in the 
same sentence. I am aware that we have good authority opposing the 
last statement, but I am unable to understand why a noun may not 
be the object of one verb and the subject of another. And it is certainly 
not inconsistent with the reality of the thought to be conveyed ; for a 
man may be at the same time the object or recipient of one action and the 
subject of another. For example, I may strike a thief while he is taking 
my money, which may be expressed, " I struck the thief taking my 
money." The authors who say that " a word cannot be both the object 
of one verb and the subject of another," say also that " every participle 
must have a subject either expressed or understood," which statements 
are inconsistent. In the above sentence, if thief is not the subject of 
taking, it has no subject, for no word can be supplied for a subject with- 
out destroying the sense. A little reasoning will make it clear that 
thief is both the object of struck and the subject of taking ; for, if the thief 
could be consulted in the matter, he would be found to entertain no doubts 
about being the identical object that was struck, and the only reason that 
I could give for making him the object of the striking is that he was the 
subject of the taking. 

709. But while it is evident that a noun or pronoun may be found in 
two constructions, it must be remembered that it can be governed by but 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 175 

one of them. For example, in the sentence, " He wants to learn," he is 
nominative, because it is the subject of the finite verb wants, not because 
it is the subject of the infinitive to learn. And in the sentence, " I saw a 
man called a thief," man is both the object of saw and the subject of 
called, but is objective only because it is the object of saw. But thief, the 
complement of called, is objective to agree in case with man, the subject 
of called. 

710, Explanation of Exception. 

"That he is a scholar has never been questioned." In this, the sub- 
ject of the subordinate clause is he, and the complement is scholar, both 
in the nominative case. But the clause is abridged by dropping that, 
changing the finite verb is to the participle being, changing the nominative 
he to the possessive his, and leaving scholar unchanged. Then we have, 
u His being a scholar has never been questioned." His, the subject of 
being, is evidently possessive, but why is scholar, the complement, nomi- 
native f 

(1) Scholar was nominative before the clause was abridged. .'.-,• 

(2) No change has taken place in the process of abridgment to cause 
any change in its case, unless it should follow the general rule and become 
possessive when the subject becomes possessive. 

(3) It is not possessive, for it does not have the possessive sign, neither 
does it denote possession. 

(4) Therefore, " scholar," or the complement in all such cases, is nomi- 
native. 



711. Rules of Syntax. 

SUBJECTS. 

FINITE VERB. 

I. The subject of a finite verb is always in the nominative 

case. 

INFINITIVE. 

II. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case when 
it is not also the subject of the finite verb on which the infini- 
tive depends. 



176 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



PARTICIPLE. 



III. When the subject of a participle does not depend 
upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the possessive 
case or nominative absolute ; possessive when the participle 
is used as a noun in a dependent construction, and absolute 
when the participle with its subject is used independently. 

OBJECTS. 

TRANSITIVE VERB. 

IV. The object of an active transitive verb is in the ob- 
jective case. 

PREPOSITION. 

V. The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

IDENTIFICATION. 

ATTRIBUTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

VI. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of a cop- 
ulative verb is in the same case as its subject. 

Exception. — When the subject of a copulative participle is possessive, 
the complement is nominative. 

APPOSITION. 

VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the same case 
as the noun or pronoun which it explains. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun signi- 
fying a different thing is in the possessive case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 177 

ABSOLUTE CASE. 

IX. A noun or pronoun used independently is in the 
nominative absolute case. 

MODIFIERS. 

ADJECTIVES. 

X. Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 

ADVERBS. 

XI. Adverbs [usually] limit verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

CONNECTIVE OR RELATION WORDS. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

XII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and sentences. 

PREPOSITION. 

XIII. A preposition shows the relation of its object to the 
word which the phrase limits. 

AGREEMENT. 

PRONOUN. 

XIV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

FINITE VERB. 

XV. A jinite verb agrees with its subject in person and 
number. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

XVI. Infinitives and participles are used as nouns, ad- 
jectives, and adverbs. 



178 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



INTERJECTIONS. 



XVII. An interjection does not depend for grammatical 
construction upon any other word. 

EXPLETIVES. 

XVIII. The words and, that, there, for, and some others, 
are often used merely as introductory expletives. 

SYNTAX OP PHEASES AND GLAUSES. 

712. General Rule. 

Grive the phrase or clause that position in the sentence 
which will best express the relation it bears to the part it 
modifies, and to the parts modifying it. 

(1) Put the phrase or clause as near the term it modifies 
as possible. 

(2) It often makes the best arrangement to begin a sen- 
tence with a phrase or clause ; as, — 

In dreams, through camp and court, he bore 
The trophies of a conqueror. — Halleck. 

(3) When the word that introduces an objective clause, 

it should not be preceded by any part of the clause. 

"I have observed, in all ages, that women have been denied many 
advantages allowed to men," does not mean the same as, "I have ob- 
served that, in all ages, women have been denied many advantages 
allowed to men." 

713. Exercise. 

Rewrite the following sentences, making necessary changes 
in the position of phrases and clauses : — 

(1) These verses were written by a young man, who has long since 
lain in the grave for his amusement. 

(2) There we saw a young man digging a well with a Eoman nose. 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 179 

(3) A lecture on the methods of teaching geography at 10 o'clock. 

(4) Wanted. — A young man to take care of horses of a religious 
turn of mind. 

(5) He went to see his friends on horseback. 

(6) That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 

(7) A message was read from the President in the Senate. 

(8) On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough, a lecture at 
the old brick church was delivered. 

(9) There we saw some men digging gold from China. 

(10) His grandfather died from cancer on his mother's side. 

(11) Mr. French needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm. 

(12) The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate. 

(13) He needs no spectacles, that cannot see ; nor boots, that cannot 
walk. 

(14) He must endure the follies of others, who will have their kind- 
ness. 

(15) Pound a white-handled knife by a child, that has a broken back. 

(16) To rent, a house containing ten rooms, located in a pleasant vil- 
lage, which has a large bay window in front. 

(17) John at last found the key, locked the door, and went off, putting 
it into his pocket. 

(18) Life, with him, has ended in a sad mistake which began with such 
bright prospects. 



180 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



ANALYSIS. 

714. Analysis is such a separation of the sentence as will 
show the relation of its elements. 

715. Elements are the distinct parts of a sentence. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 

716. (J.) According to rank, elements are Principal and 
Subordinate. 

717. Principal Elements are those without which a sen- 
tence cannot exist. They are the Subject and Predicate. 

718. The Subject is that of which something is asserted 
or assumed, and is always a noun or some expression used 
as a noun. 

719. The Simple Subject, with all its modifiers, is called 
the complex subject. 

720. The Simple Predicate, with all its modifiers, is called 
the complex predicate. 

721. Subordinate Elements are those used in any other 
way than as a subject and predicate. 

(a) The subject of an infinitive is a subordinate element. 

722. The Predicate is the assertion or assumption made 
concerning the subject, and consists of an attribute and 
copula ; as, " Sugar is sweet." " Birds are animals." Here 
is sweet and are animals are the predicates, of which is and 
are are the copulas, and sweet and animals are the attributes. 

723. The Copula and Attribute are often united in one 
word: " Susan reads " = " Susan is reading" or " Susan is 



ANALYSIS. 181 

a reader" A predicate must always be a verb or contain 
one, for a verb is the only part of speech that can assert or 
assume. 

724. The Copula is usually some form of the verb to be, 
but many others are so used, as feel, seem, appear, etc. 
The word copula means a coupler — that which joins the 
attribute to the subject. Many verbs in the passive 
voice are often used as copulas ; as, " He was considered 
honest." 

725. Copulas are pure, as, " He is wealthy" ; impure, as, 
" They appear good," " He was considered honest " ; or 
complex, as, " They appear to be sick," " He was considered 
to be reliable." 

726. The Attribute is the word or words expressing that 
property, quality, or characteristic of the subject, which is 
asserted or assumed by the copula. It is always an adjec- 
tive, or a noun, or some expression used as such. 

727. As a noun it may be — 

(1) A noun : " He is a merchant." 

(2) A pronoun : u If I were she. 1 '' 

(3) A participle: " Lying is telling untruths." 

(4) An infinitive : " His business is to teach music." 

(5) A clause : "The question is, Are you the man ?" 

728. As an adjective it may be — 

(1) An adjective: " She is good." 

(2) An infinitive : " Oil is to be found in Ohio." 

(3) A prepositional phrase : l • I am for peace. ' ' 

729. (i?) According to form, elements are Simple, Com- 
plex, Compound, and Partial- Compound. 

730. A Simple Element is one without modifiers, or con- 
sidered apart from its modifiers. 

Example. — " The old man speaks fluently." In this sentence fluently 
is a simple element, because it is without modifiers, and man and speaks 
are simple elements, if they are considered apart from their modifiers. 



182 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

731. A Complex Element is one whose base, or some part 
of it, is modified by something which is not any part of the 
base. 

Example. — " The little children ran to the old oak." In this sentence 
The little children and to the old oak are complex elements. 

732. The Base of an element is that part of it which 
expresses its primary idea. It may be a word, a phrase, or 
a clause. 

Example. — "The little girl came to our school." In this sentence 
girl is the base of the element The little girl, and to school is the base of 
the element to our school. In the sentence, " A boy who is truthful will 
win respect," the base of the element A boy who is truthful is boy, and 
the base of the element who is truthful is not who, is, or truthful, but the 
entire clause who is truthful. 

733. A Compound Element is one having a compound base. 

Example. — " Smith and Jones went to Boston and to Chicago." In 
this sentence Smith and Jones is a compound element ; also the element 
to Boston and to Chicago.'''' 

734. A Partial-Compound Element is one a part of whose 
base is compound. 

Example. — " He is wise and good." Here is wise and good is the par- 
tial-compound predicate — the copula is simple, but the attribute is com- 
pound. The work was performed amidst hardships and dangers. In this 
sentence amidst hardships and dangers is a partial-compound element. 

735. (<7) According to use, elements are Adjective, Objec- 
tive, Subjective, Adverbial, Attendant, and Connective. 

736. An Adjective Element is one that modifies a noun 
or pronoun. 

737. An Objective Element is one that is the object of a 
transitive verb. 

738. A Subjective Element is one used as the subject of 
a finite verb or an infinitive. 



ANALYSIS. 183 

739. An Adverbial Element is one that modifies anything 
else than a noun or pronoun, or a verb as its subject or 
object. 

740. An Attendant Element is one which has a logical 
connection with some other part of the sentence, but no 
grammatical connection. 

Example. — "The sun having risen, we pursued our journey." In 
this sentence, The sun having risen is independent in its grammatical 
construction, but expresses the logical reason for pursuing the journey. 

We, while he spake, ceased not our onward road, 
Still passing through the wood ; for so I name 
Those spirits thick beset. — Dante. 

741. A Connective Element is one joining two parts of 
the sentence. It may be a conjunction, relative pronoun, 
conjunctive or relative adverb, conjunctive adjective,^ or 
preposition. 

742. (D) According to base, elements are of the First 
Class, the Second Glass, or the Third Class. 

743. An Element of the First Class is one whose base is a 
single word. 

Example. — "The furious animals ran rapidly away." All the ele- 
ments in this sentence are of the first class. 

744. An Element of the Second Class is one whose base is 
a preposition and its object, or an infinitive ; as, " The city 
of Indianapolis is on White River" " He trie v d to finish 
his work." 

745. An Element of the Third Class is one whose base is 
a subordinate sentence. 

Example. — "I believe that he will do it." " If you try, you will suc- 
ceed." " That the earth is spherical has been proven." 



184 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

746. Point out the elements in the following sentences and 
describe each — 

(1) As to form. 

(2) As to use. 

(3) As to base. 

747. Also, tell what each element modifies : — 

(1) The merchant fulfilled his contract. 

(2) A man less diligent in business would have failed in the enterprise. 

(3) A man who is honest will be respected. 

(4) The children came with laugh and shout, and filled the halls with 
glee. 

(5) We all desire him to become a minister. 

(6) The money being furnished, he purchased the estate. 

(7) Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. 

(8) While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the house. 

(9) As we approached the top of the hill we saw the Indian wigwams. 
(10) You will please to speak so that we can hear you. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

748. A Sentence is an expression of thought in words. 

749. (J.) As to rank, sentences are Principal or Sub- 
ordinate. 

750. A Principal Sentence is one which is not used as a 
modifier. 

751. A Subordinate Sentence is one used to modify some 
part of a principal sentence. 

Example. — "John struck James " is a principal sentence ; but in " I 
believe John struck James," John struck James is subordinate, used as 
a simple objective element of the third class. In the last, either I believe, 
or the entire sentence, 7 believe John struck James, may be regarded as 
the principal sentence. 

752. A subordinate sentence is sometimes called a 
Clause. 



ANALYSIS. 185 

753. Clauses are Substantive, Adjective, Adverbial, accord- 
ing as they perform the office of a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb. 

754. A Substantive Clause may be — 

(1) The subject of a verb : " That he is a thief is evident.'" 

(2) The complement of a copula: "His motto is, Labor conquers all 
things." 

(3) The object of a verb : "I believe that he is a thief" 

(4) The object of a preposition : "They are disputing about who was 
elected." " I left after he came." 

(5) In apposition: "The question, Are we a nation ? was answered 
by Sumner." 

755. An Adverbial Clause may modify — 

756. («) ^n adverb or adjective to express degree ; as, " Henry walks 
faster than I run." " You are better than I am." 

757. (P) A verb to express — 

(1) Time : " We shall start when the train arrives." 

(2) Place : " Come w/iere £fte roses are blooming." 

(3) Condition : " You will succeed ^7?/ow £r?/." 

(4) Manner : " I shall proceed as ?/ow may direct." 

(5) Purpose : " He came that 7ie might be instructed." 

(6) Beason : "I will leave because ?/ow are here" 

(7) Concession: "Though fte sZa?/ me, yet will I trust him." Con- 
cessive clauses are introduced by though, although, notwithstanding, 
however, etc. 

758. An Adjective or Relative Clause may be — 

759. Restrictive : one which distinguishes the object or ob- 
jects represented by its antecedent from others of the same 
class ; as, " Words that are names are nouns." 

760. Explanatory: one which explains its antecedent; as, 
"Words, which are the signs of ideas, are divided into 
classes." " Solomon, who built the temple, was the wisest 
of kings." 



186 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

761. (i?) As to structure, sentences are Simple, Compound, 
Partial- Compound, Complex, Complete, and Abridged. 

762. A Simple Sentence is a single statement. 

Example. — " Cows are quadrupeds." " The history of America is a 
very interesting story." 

763. A Compound Sentence is one containing two or more 
sentences of equal rank, joined by one or more co-ordinate 
connectives. 

Example. — " Art is long, and time is fleeting." " He aimed at the 
target, but he could not hit it." " They who were first shall be last, and 
they who were last shall be first." 

(a) The first in a compound sentence is called the leading sentence, 
and any other, a co-ordinate sentence. 

764. A Partial-Compound Sentence is one in which either 

or both of the principal elements are compound. 

Example. — "John and Mary are a handsome couple." " They came 
and desired an interview." "John and James came and remained." 

765. A Complex Sentence is one containing one or more 
complete subordinate sentences. The subordinate sentence 
itself may be either simple, complex, or compound. 

Example. — "I believe you are mistaken:'' "lam the man who said 
you are mistaken.'''' u If he is industrious and she is economical, pros- 
perity will crown their efforts." 

766. A Complete Sentence is one whose verb is finite. 

Example. — " She is a musician." 

767. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is an infini- 
tive or a participle. 

Example. — 11 ! believe her to be a musician." "She being a musician, 
we were well entertained." 

768. (<7) As to use, sentences are Declarative, Interroga- 
tive, Exclamatory, and Imperative. 



ANALYSIS. 187 

769. A Declarative Sentence is one that asserts or denies. 
Example. — " He is honest." " He is not honest." 

770. An Interrogative Sentence is one which, asks a ques- 
tion. 

Example. — " Is he honest ? " 

771. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclamation. 

Example. — " How honest he is ! " 

772. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is impera- 
tive. 

Example. — " Go to the ant." " Hear me for my cause." 

773. An imperative is often used with the force of an 
exclamatory sentence ; as, " See that beautiful bird." 

774. The subject of an imperative sentence is usually 
thou, you, or ye, but it is sometimes a noun in the third 
person, or a pronoun in the first. 

Example. — " Green be their graves." " Hallowed be thy name." 
u To the next circle, teacher, bend thy steps, 
And from this wall dismount we." 

Gary's Dante's Inferno, line 71, canto 24. 

775. Describe the sentences as to rank, structure, and use, 
and the elements as to structure, use, and base. Also point 
out the simple and the complex subject and predicate of each 
sentence. 

(1) Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. 

(2) Give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. 

(3) A river with many branches waters the land. 

(4) The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. ■ 

(5) Eead books that impart information. 

(6) What a piece of work is man ! 

(7) The vine still clings to the moldering wall, and at every gust the 

dead leaves fall. 

(8) He will return to school when vacation is over. 

(9) Homer was the greater genius, Yirgil the better artist. 
(10) Then see you not his face ? 



188 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



CONNECTIVES. 

776. A Connective is any word that joins words, phra&es, 
or sentences. 

777. There are two classes of connectives: Co-ordinate 
and Subordinate. 

778. A Co-ordinate Connective is one that joins elements 
of equal rank. It is always a co-ordinate conjunction ; as, 
and, but, or, nor, etc. 

779. A Subordinate Connective is one that joins elements 
of unequal rank. 

780. It may be — 

(1) A subordinate conjunction ; as, " He will pay you if he promised." 
" We believe her because she is truthful." 

(2) A relative pronoun; as, "The boy that is truthful will always 
make friends." "I had a dream which was not all a dream." "The 
man with whom you were walking is my cousin." 

(3) A relative adverb ; as, " There may be a time when she will regret 

it." 

" There is a land of pure delight, 

Where saints immortal reign." 

(4) A conjunctive adverb; as, "Be merry while you may." "Do as 
you are directed." " Come when you are wanted." 

(5) A conjunctive adjective; as, "As is the labor so the reward should 
be." 

781. Outline of Sentences. 

la. Kinds. be. In apposition. 

lb. As to rank. 6e. Independent. 

lc. Principal. 2d. Adverbial. 

2c. Subordinate. le. Modifying an adverb 

Id. Substantive. — Maybe — or an adjective to 

le. The subject of a verb. express degree. 

2e. The object of a verb. 2e. Modifying a verb to 

3e. The object of a prepo- express — 

sition. 1/. Time. 

4e. The complement of a 2/. Place, 

copula. 3/. Degree. 






ANALYSIS. 



189 



4/. Condition. 
5/. Manner. 
6f. Purpose. 
7/. Keason. 
8/. Concession. 
3d. Adjective, 
le. Eestrictive. 
2e. Explanatory. 
2b. As to structure, 
lc. Simple. 
2c. Compound. • 
3c. Partial- compound. 
4c. Complex. 
5c. Complete. 
6c. Abridged. 
3b. As to use. 
lc. Declarative. 
2c. Interrogative. 
3c. Exclamatory. 
4c. Imperative. 
2a. Elements. 

lb. According to rank, 
lc. Principal. 
Id. Subject. 

2d. Predicate, consists of — 
lc. Copula. 
1/. Pure. 
2/. Impure. 
3/. Complex. 
2e. Attribute, may be 
used as — 
If. A noun. 
lg. Noun. 
2g. Pronoun. 
3g. Participle. 



4g. Infinitive. 
5g. Clause. 
2/. An adjective. 
lg. Adjective. 
2g. Infinitive. 
Sg. Prepositional 
phrase. 
2c. Subordinate. 
2b. According to structure. 
lc. Simple. 
2c. Complex. 
3c. Compound. 
4c. Partial-compound. 
36. According to use. 
lc. Adjective. 
2c. Objective. 
3c. Subjective. 
4c. Adverbial. 
5c. Attendant. 
6c. Connective. 

Id. Co-ordinate : co-ordi- 
nate conjunction. 
2d. Subordinate. 

lc. Subordinate conjunc- 
tion. 
2c. Eelative pronoun. 
3e. Conjunctive or rela- 
tive adverb. 
4c. Conjunctive adjec- 
tive. 
5c. Preposition. 
4b. According to base, 
lc. First class. 
2c. Second class. 
3c. Third class. 



190 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



DIAGRAMMING. 

782. A Diagram is such an arrangement of a sentence as 
will show the construction, or use, of its parts. 





Subject Predicate 


9 


Adj,. el. 




Adj. eh 




5P 




Obj. el. | 


bj\ el. . 






C6 






Adv. el. 


Adv. el. (infinitive,) 


i 


















Subj. el. 






Adj. (appo&itive 


)el. 












Subject. 


Predicate. 






Connective (conj. ad 


v.) 





783. The above blank diagram exposes at a glance all 
the essential principles of the straight-line system of dia- 
grammed analysis. 

784. The importance of the subject and predicate of the 
principal sentence is indicated by the heavy line. They 
are written upon the same line and separated by a heavy 
vertical bar to show that they are of equal rank. All 
modifiers are placed below and on lighter lines to show 
that they are subordinate to the subject and predicate. 

785. To distinguish an objective element, let the line on 
which it is written be brought down from one which 
extends over the verb. The subject of an infinitive is 
written upon a line which is joined to one drawn under 




DIAGRAMMING. 



191 



the infinitive. A conjunction is written in a break in the 
line. A connective that is also a modifier must be written 
so as to show both its uses. A dotted line indicates an 
appositive element; a parenthesis, an independent element. 
A short horizontal bar is used to separate a copula and an 
attribute, also to separate a preposition and its object. 

786. The relative position of elements in the sentence 
determines the direction of their lines in the diagram : 
word modifiers turn to the left when they precede the 
term modified, to the right when they follow it. Phrases 
(prepositional or infinitive) always turn to the light. 
Clauses turn to the right or left, as is most convenient. 



ANALYSIS. 

(1) Sugar is sweet. 

(2) Truth is a virtue. 

(3) Grass grows. 

(4) The little children, eager for the story, gave all their attention to 
the speaker. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead. 

(6) He and I went and we returned. 



787. Diagrammed Analysis. 
(1) 



(3) 



Sugar 



is— sweet. 



Grass 



grows. 



(2) 



Truth 



is— virtue. 



3T 






) 






children 


gave 














attention 


little 


to— spa 


Tiher, their 


The 


eager 


r— 


the 


all 








fo 




story, 







192 



COMMON SCHOOL 

(5) 

Smith* 1 is— dead. 

•— T 1 


GRAMMAR. 
(6) 

He $ J 1 went 


i ■ 

i 
Vmerchantf 

\tJie\ 


avid 

we J returned. 



788. Written Analysis. 

(1) Sugar is sweet is a simp, declar. sent., of which Sugar is the simp, 
sub. unmodified, and is sweet is the simple pred. unmodified, is the cop- 
ula, and sweet the attribute. 

(2) Truth is a virtue is a simp, declar. sent., of which Truth is the 
simp. sub. unmod., and is a virtue is the complex pred., is virtue is the 
simp, pred., is the cop. unmod., and virtue the attrib. mod. by a, a 
simp. adj. element of the first class. 

(3) Grass grows is a simp, declar. sent., of which Grass is the simp, 
subj., and grows the simp. pred. 

(4) The little children . . . speaker is a simp, declar. sent., of which 
The little children, eager for the story, is the complex subj., of which chil- 
dren is the simp. subj. mod. by the and little, two simp. adj. els. of the 
first class ; also by eager for the story, a complex adj. el. of the first class, 
of which eager is the base, mod. by for the story, a complex adv. el. of 
the second class ; for story is the base of which story, the noun, is mod. 
by the, a simp. adj. el. of the first class. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead is a simp, declar. sent., of which 
Smith, the merchant, is the complex subj., of which Smith is the simp, 
subj. mod. by the merchant, a complex adj. el. of the first class ; merchant, 
the base, is mod. by the, a simp. adj. el. of the first class ; of which sent., 
also, is dead is the simp. pred. unmod., is the cop., and dead the attrib. 

(6) He and I went and we returned is a compound declar. sent., of 
which He and 1 went is the leading, partial-compound, declar. sent., 
of which He and I is the comp. subj., and and the co-or. connect., of 
which sent, also went is the simp. pred. ; of the comp. sent, and is the 
co-or. connect., and we returned is the co-or. simp, declar. sent., of which 
we is the simp, subj., and returned is the simp, pred., both unmod. 

789. Program for Written or Oral Analysis. 

(1) Describe the sentence/ « As to Structure. 
w I (2) As to Use. 

(2) Give the complex subject. 



DIAGRAMMING. 193 

(3) Give the simple subject. 

r(V) Form. 

(4) Describe its modifiers as to -J (2) Use. 

1(3) Base. 

(5) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers, as above. 

(6) Give the complex predicate. 

(7) Give the simple predicate. 

{(1) Form. 
(2) Use. 
(3) Base. 

(9) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers, as above. 

790. The pupil should follow the above order with the utmost pre- 
cision. In this way he will most readily learn to analyze, and at the 
same time receive one of the very best of drills in careful, accurate, rapid 
thinking ; while to attempt to analyze without following any particular 
order, not only defeats the object so far as a lesson in grammar is con- 
cerned, but is also a very effective means of creating inattention in the 
class and of giving to the pupil himself a habit of carelessness in thought 
and expression. 

791. Sentences for Analysis. 

(1) Mowers bloom. 

(2) Dew sparkles. 

(3) Frogs leap. 

(4) Napoleon was banished. 

(5) Grammarians will differ. 

(6) It has been decided. 

(7) The angry wind is howling. 

(8) Little Arthur was murdered. 

(9) A beautiful marble statue was carved. 

(10) All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(11) Her chief business was sauntering about the neighborhood and 
spending her time in idle gossip. 

(12) Having sold his residence in the city, the man moved to his farm 
near the lakes. 

(13) The general having been captured, the army was defeated. 

(14) The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

(15) The writer's being a scholar is not doubted. 

(16) I never heard of that man running for office. 

(17) I never heard of that man's running for office. 



194 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



(18) The child stood weeping. 

(19) The dog came limping. 

(20) The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

(21) No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in 
turbulent mobs. 

(22) The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. 

(23) Spring comes robed in silken green. 



792. The Complex Sentence. 

(1) He announced that the train had arrived. 

(2) He has lost the book which I had given to him. 

(3) « When he had completed his task, the boy went out to play. 

(4) That he is the thief is evident. 

(5) His objection was that the boy was too young. 

(6) It has been claimed that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare's works. 

(7) She is taller than her sister. 

(8) It was so cold that the mercury froze. 

(9) The Indian knows the place where his friends are buried. 

(10) He demanded of them where Christ should be born. 

(11) As is the boy so will be the man. 

(12) We will work till Jesus comes. 

(13) These exercises are as profitable as they are interesting. 

(14) When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will 
take me up. 

(15) Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was 
meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

(16) The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. 

(17) I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the reputation 
which he bore among his neighbors. 

(i) 



He I announced 



(tha€) train 



the 



had arrived. 



This diagram shows how to place an 
objective clause which has no con- 
nective. It shows also how to 
place an introductory expletive. 



Analysis. — He announced that the train had arrived is a complex 
declar. sent., of which He is the simp. subj. unmod. ; of which sent., 
also, announced that the train had arrived is the complex pred., of which 



DIAGRAMMING. 



195 



announced is the simp, pred., mod. by that the train had arrived, a 
simp. obj. el. of the third class ; it is also a simp, declar. subor. sent., of 
which that is the introductory expletive, and the train is the complex 
subj., of which train, the simple subj., is mod. by the, a simp. adj. el. of 
the first class ; of which subordinate sent., also, had arrived is the simp, 
pred. unmodified. 

(2) 



He 



This diagram shows the posi- 
tion of a relative used as the 
object of a verb. 



has lost 



booh 












I 




the 


had given 










to— him. 






which 



Booh is mod. by which I had given to him, a simp. adj. el. of third 
class ; it is also a simp, declar. subor. sent., of which I is the simp, 
subj. unmod. ; of which sent., also, had given which to him is the complex 
pred. ; had given, the simp, pred., is mod. by to him, a simp. adv. el. of 
second class ; also by which, a simp. obj. el. of first class ; it is also the 
subor. con., joining to its ante., book, the subor. sent., which I had given 
to him. 

(3) 



This diagram shows the position of a 
conjunctive adverb. 



boy I 


went 






fitte 1 r 






out 




to 


play. 










he 


had completed 






When 





taste 



his 



When is a conj. adv. of time ; it limits had completed, and joins its 
subor. sent, to went. 

(4) 



This diagram shows the position / That) he 
of a subordinate sentence used — ^— 



as the subject. 



is-*thief I is-^evi&ent* 



the 



That he is the thief is evident is a complex declar. sent. , of which That 
he is the thief is the simp. subj. It is also a simp, declar. subor. sent., of 
which That is the introduc. expl., he the simp, subj., and is the thief is 



196 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



the complex pred. , of which is thief is the simp. pred. , is the cop. , unmod. , 
and thief the attribute, is mod. by the, a simp. adj. el. of first class. Of 
the princ. sent. , is evident is the simp. pred. , of which is is the cop. , and 
evident the attribute. 



(5) 



(that) 



objection \ was— boy 



Sis 



the 



was —young. 



t°o\ 



This diagram shows the 
position of a subordinate 
sentence used as the com- 
plement. 



Was that the boy was too young is the simp, pred., of which was is the 
cop., and that the boy was too young the attribute ; it is also a simp, declar. 
subor. sent. , of which that is the introduc. expl. , and the boy the complex 
subj. ; boy, the simp, subj., is mod. by the, a simp. adj. el. of the first 
class, of which subor. sent., also, was too young is the complex pred., was 
young is the simp, pred., was the cop. unmod., and young the attrib., mod 
by too, a simp. adv. el. of first class. 

(6) 



It I has been claimed 



This diagram shows the 
position of a subordi- 
nate sentence used in 
apposition. 



(that) Ijprd JBacon wrote 



works. 



Shakespeare 's 



This is a complex declar. sent., of which It, that Lord Bacon wrote 
Shakespeare^ s works is the complex subj., of which It, the simp, subj., 
is mod. by that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare^ s works, a simp. adj. el. 
of third class ; it is also a simp. decl. subor. sent. , of which that is the 
introduc. expl., Lord Bacon the simp, subj., etc. 
(7) 



She 



is —'taller 



than 
sister. \ [is— tall] 



her 



This diagram shows the position of a subordinate 
conjunction. 



Taller is mod. by than her sister is tall, a simp. adv. el. of third class ; 
it is also a simp, declar. subor. sent., of which than is the connective, etc. 



(8) 
It I was— cold 



DIAGRAMMING. 
(9) 



197 



that 



mercury 



firoze± 



Indian 


1 knows 


place 






\ 

the 














friends 


are buitiied. 




his * 
where 





So is an adv. of degree, mod. by that the mercury froze, a simp. adv. el. 
of third class. 

Place is mod. by where his friends are buried, a simp. adj. el. of third 
class, etc. 

Where is a rel. adv. ; it lim. are buried, and joins its subor. sent, to the 
noun place. 

(10) 



He 


demanded 




1 




of— them 








Christ 


sTiottftKl he bann. 






ffihere 





This shows the position of an objec- 
tive clause. 



Demanded is mod. by where Christ should be born, a simp. obj. el. of 
third class ; it is also a simp, indirect interrogative subor. sent. , etc. 

Where is a simp, interrog. adv. , but not a connective. No connective 
is needed for a subor. sent, used as the obj. of a trans, verb. It may be 
well to remember that no interrogative word is ever a connective. 

en) 



Here we have a conjunctive adjective. 



As . . .so are correlative, or responsive, indefinite, descriptive, predicate 
adjectives. They cannot be regarded as adverbs, for both verbs are copu- 
lative, not attributive. 



i 


man. \will be— so 


he 


is—-As 


boy 


the 







198 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



Will be so is the pred. of the princ. sent., will be the cop., and so the 
attrib. So is mod. by As is the boy, a, simp. adv. el. of third class, of 
which is As is the simp, pred., is the cop., and As the attrib. As is also 
the subor. connective, joining its subor. sent, to so. 
(12) 

We I will WOT Jc Thig showg the position of a gubordi- 

neSt nate sentence used as the object of a 

preposition. 



tilt— Jesus 



Will work is mod. by till Jesus comes, a simp. adv. el. of sec. class, of 
which till Jesus comes is the base, till the prep., and Jesus comes the obj.; 
it is also a simp, declar. subor. sent., of which Jesus is the simp, subj., 
and comes the simp. pred. 

Till must not be parsed as a conj. adv. in such sentences. 

(13) 
exercises I are— profitable 



TJiese 



they 


are— interesting . 




as 





As ... as are correl. or respon. advs. of degree. First as is a simp, 
adv., and lim. profitable. The second as is a conj. adv. ; it lim. interesting, 
and joins its subor. sent, to first as. 
(14) 



Lord 


will take 






the \ 


1 

then 






me 






it 


P- 














n 


father g mother 


I forsake 






l V 


my 




i 










When 







Then is mod. by When my father and my mother forsake me, a partial- 
compound adv. el. of third class j it is also a par. -com. declar. subor. sent., 



DIAGRAMMING. 



199 



of which my father and my mother is the compound complex subj., of 
which my father is the first member ; father, the base, is mod. by my, a 
simp. adj. el. of first class ; and is the co-or. connective, and my 
mother is the sec. member, of which mother, the base, is mod. by my, a 
simp. adj. el. of first class, etc. 

When . . . then are correl. or respon. advs. of time. When is a conj. adv. ; it lim. 
forsake, and joins its subor. sent, to then, which is a simp, adv., and lim. will take. 



(15) 



JBlucher 



arrived 



on— field 



the 



of— Waterloo 



Wellington 



was meeting 



ist J 



onslaught 



last 



of— Napoleon. 



just 

As is a conj. adv. of time ; it lim. was meeting, and joins its subor. 
sent, to arrived. 

Just is a simp. adv. of degree, and lim. as. 

(16) 

he I became.— humbler 



the 



he 



gr.etvr-.wJrseir 



The 



The first the is a conjunc. adv. of degree ; it lim. wiser, and joins its 
subor. sent, to the second the. 

The second the is a simp. adv. of degree, and lim. humbler ; humbler 
and wiser are pred. adjectives ; became and grew, cop. verbs. The mean- 
ing is, " He became humbler to the degree to which he grew wiser." 



200 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



(17). 
I I teas grieved 



I 


heard 










he 


had obtained 


when 














JiPM 





reputation 



the 



he 


bore 








among— neighbors. 




his 






which 





When is a conj. adv. of time ; it lim. heard, and joins its subor. sent, 
to was grieved. 

How is a respon. adv. of manner, limiting had obtained. How is 
not a connective ; no con. is needed for the obj. of a verb. 

Which is a rel.pro., used as the obj. of bore, and to connect its subor. 
sent, to reputation. 

For brevity, " and what follows " may be used in writing the analysis of 
long sentences : . — 

Analysis. — I was grieved and what follows is a complex declar. sent., 
of which I is the simp. subj. unmod. ; of which sent., also, was grieved 
with its modifiers is the complex pred. , of which was grieved is the simp, 
pred., mod. by when I heard and what follows, a complex adv. el. of the 
third class ; it is also a complex declar. subor. sent., of which I is the simp, 
subj., unmod. ; of which subor. sent., also, I heard with its modifiers is 
the complex pred. , of which heard is the simp. pred. , modified by ivhen, 
a simp. adv. el. of the first class ; it is also the subor. connective ; heard 
is mod. also by how he had obtained and what follows, a complex obj. el. 
of the third class ; it is also a complex indirect interrogative subor. sent. , 
of which he is the simp, subj., unmod. ; of which subor. sent., also, had 
obtained with its modifiers is the complex pred. , of which had obtained is 
the simp, pred., mod. by how, a simp. adv. el. of first class ; also by repu- 
tation with its modifiers, a complex obj. el. of first class ; reputation, the 
base, is mod. by the, a simp. adj. el. of first class ; also by which he and 
what follows, a simp. adj. el. of third class ; it is also a simp, declar. 
subor. sent., of which he is the simp. subj. unmod., of which sent., also, 
bore with its modifiers is the complex pred. , of which bore is the simp. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 20l 

pred., mod. by which, a simp. obj. el. of the first class ; it is also the con- 
nective ; bore is mod. , also, by among his neighbors, a complex adv. el. of 
second class, of which among neighbors is the base, and neighbors, the 
noun, is mod by his, a simp. adj. el. of first class. 

793. Complex Sentences for Analysis. 

(1) The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

(2) There is no need that she be present. 

(3) The opinion that the soul is immortal has been almost universally 
entertained. 

(4) Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

(5) The man who cannot put fire into his speeches should put his 
speeches into the fire. 

(6) The sumptuous cities which have lighted the world since the 
beginning of time are now beheld only in the pictures of the historian of 
the past. 

(7) The smallest dew-drop that lies on the meadow at night has a star 
sleeping in its bosom. 

(8) We should endeavor to secure the friendship of that Being who 
holds in his hands the reins of the universe. 

(9) Black, smoking ruins marked the place which had been the habi- 
tation of her children. 

(10) Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

(11) Webster was a man whom the country will remember with pride. 

(12) There are occasions in life in which a great mind will live years 
of rapt enjoyment in a moment. 

(13) The challenge to combat was given by touching the shield of the 
knight whom the challenger wished to encounter. 

(14) Not a single region which the Indians can now call their own do 
the winds of the Atlantic fan. 

(15) The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honorable 
gentleman has with such spirit of decency charged upon me, I shall neither 
attempt to palliate nor deny. 

(16) The jingling of the guineas helps the hurt that honor feels. 

(17) It is not always easy to make one's self just what one wishes 
to be. 

(18) He, beneath whose proud footstep Europe trembled, became a 
prisoner on the rock-bound isle of St. Helena. 

(19) God seems to have made him what he was. 

(20) A has three times as much money as B. 

(21) He told me what I never heard of before. 



202 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(22) We are here to hear what you shall say. 

(23) Infidelity gives nothing in return for what it takes away. 

(24) The thief refused to divide what he had stolen. 

(25) Such as are virtuous are happy. 

(26) As many as came were satisfied. 

(27) The son has the same indications as his father. 

(28) Whoever wins may laugh. 

(29) Whatever purifies the heart also fortifies it. 

(30) Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be blest. 

(31) He threatened to shoot whoever tried to stop him. 

(32) Toward night the schoolmaster walked over to the cottage where 
his little friend lay sick. 

(33) There was a time when I was free to roam. 

(34) Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

(35) It is the hour when lovers' vows 
Seem sweet in every whispered word. 

(36) At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

(37) Deep in the wave is a coral grove 

Where the purple mullet and the gold-fish rove. 

(38) There is a land of pure delight, 
Where saints immortal reign. 

(39) Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero was buried. 

(40) And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 

(41) She has sent for the lady whom she believed to be a governess. 

(42) I knew the man whom the general appointed captain. 

(43) I saw the man who we believed was sick. 

(44) The boy closed the shutters which darkened the room. 

(45) He reached the station just as the train was starting. 

(46) Gather roses while they bloom. 

(47) Smile whenever you can. 

(48) While there is life there is hope. 

(49) The ship sailed before the sun rose. 

(50) You may wait till the train arrives. 

(51) You cannot reap until after you sow. 

(52) Improve each shining moment as it flies. 

(53) He has been here ever since his brother came. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 203 

(54) Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend. 

(55) He was just about to start when I called him back. 

(56) She has not been here since you came. 

(57) When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of envy 
dies within me. 

(58) Knowledge and timber should not be used much till they are 
seasoned. 

(59) On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(60) Oh, what a tangled web we weave 
When first we practice to deceive ! 

(61) He sleeps wherever night overtakes him. 

(62) He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall. 

(63) Where there's a will there's a way. 

(64) As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed trans- 
gressions from us. 

(65) Man cannot act a more perfidious part than to use his utmost 
efforts to obtain confidence in order to deceive. 

(66) No axe had levelled the giant progeny of the crowded grove in 
which the fantastic forms of withered limbs that had been blasted and 
riven by lightning contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a 
younger growth of branches. 

(67) Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? 

(68) Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing 
on this menacing meteor which blackened their horizon, it suddenly burst, 
and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Car- 
natic. 

(69) God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, and who 
created all things, is eternal. 

(70) I knew why he was sent there, how he is to manage, when he 
is to leave, where he is to go next, and who is to return home with 
him. 

(71) When misfortune comes, when the first prospects fade away, and 
when on either hand a listless desert stretches away to the sky, then do 
we realize true friendship. 

(72) The world and affairs have shown me that one-half of history is 
loose conjecture, and much of the rest is the writer's opinion. — Wendell 
Phillips, 



204 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(73) On the bosom of a river, 

Where the sun unloosed his quiver, 
And the starlight streamed forever, 
Sailed a vessel light and free. 

(74) Once again the Greeks arise, 

As in their country's noblest hours. 

(75) The higher a bird flies, the more out of danger he is. 

(76) It is unbelief, and not faith, that sinks the sinner into despond- 
ency. — Fuller. 

(77) Whatever is found more strange or beautiful than was expected, 
is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality. — Kames, 
El. of Crit. 

(78) For a man to give his opinion of what he sees but in part, is an 
unjustifiable piece of rashness and folly. — Addison. 

(79) I have more money than I know what to do with. 

(80) Even in Earth's best and brightest aspects Hope shows it to be 
only the shadow of an infinite bliss hereafter. 

(81) The man to solitude accustomed long 

Perceives in everything that lives a tongue. — Cowper. 

(82) The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark 
When neither is attended ; and I think, 
The nightingale, if she should sing by day, 
When every goose is cackling, would be thought 

No better a musician than the wren. — Merchant of Venice. 

(83) If in some distant planet lying were as essential to human welfare 
as truthfulness is in this world, falsehood might there be a cardinal 
virtue. — Leslie Stephen. 

(84) The fires which youthful folly and vice have kindled are not 
always extinguished by the tears of subsequent repentance, but burn on, 
slowly consuming, until the whole structure lies in ruins. — Haven. 

(85) The hero who wept that there were no more worlds to conquer, 
seems never to have learned that within his own bosom lay a restless and 
turbulent kingdom, over which, with all his armies and all his power and 
valor, he had as yet attained no dominion. — Haven. 

(86) It is easier for heaven and earth to pass, than for one tittle of the 
law to fail. 

(87) He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of 
that.— J. S. Mill. 

(88) And that strange boat like the moon's shade did sway, 
Amid reflected stars that in the waters lay. — Shelley. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 205 

(89) The more we know of ancient literature, the more we are struck 
with its modernness. — Lowell. 

(90) The highest culture, the development of the individual by obser- 
vation, reflection, and study, leads to one result, whether in Athens or in 
London. — Lowell. 

(91) Nature to all things fixed the limits fit, 

And wisely curbed proud man's pretending wit. — Pope. 

(92) Be Homer's works your study and delight, 
Read them by day, and meditate by night. — Id. 

(93) A perfect judge will read a work of wit 

With the same spirit that its author writ. — Id. 

(94) Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. — Id. 

(95) Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. — Id. 

(96) True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 

As those move easiest who have learned to dance. — Id. 

(97) We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; 
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 

(98) When first that sun too powerful beams displays, 
It draws up vapors which obscure its rays. — Id. 

(99) Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; 

His praise is lost, who stays till all commend. — Id. 

(100) All seems infected that the infected spy, 

As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. — Id. 

(101) Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own H my native land ? 

(102) 111 fares the land to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 

(103) Poets lose half the praise they would have got 
Were it but known what they discreetly blot. 

(104) The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; 
The tories own no argument but force. 

(105) The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 

(106) When Dante stood before the gates of Hell, he read, over a portal's 
lofty arch, the awful inscription : All hope abandon, ye who enter here. 



206 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



LETTER WRITING. 

794. The Letter is the simplest form of composition. It 
may be addressed to one person or more. 

795. Kinds of Letters. 

(1) Of Friendship, (2) of Business, (3) of Courtesy, (4) to 
the Public. 

796. Letters of Friendship. 

These include letters to parents, to children, to brothers 
or sisters, to school-mates, and to other intimate friends. 

797. Letters of friendship are entirely too much neg- 
lected. The parents should see to it that every child 
has not only the ability to write letters, but the desire to 
do it. The teacher may also do much to cultivate in the 
pupil an inclination to write letters of friendship; but 
most of this must come from the home training. Many a 
young man has been saved from destruction by the letters 
he wrote to his mother, and the answers he received in 
return. 

798. Suggestions upon writing Letters of Friendship. 

(1) Write about the ordinary every-day occurrences. 
These are the things most interesting to our friends. 

(2) Avoid all assumed formality and soft sentimental- 
ity ; also such superfluous expressions as " I seat myself," 
" I take my pen in hand," " I cannot think of any more to 
say to you," etc. 

(3) Do not suppose that illegible writing is an evidence 
of good thought, or that beautiful penmanship will com- 
pensate for the absence of thought. 



LETTER WRITING. 207 

(4) Write to your friends the things you would tell 
them if you were with them. 

(5) Do not place your letter in the envelope until you 
have read it over carefully and removed all errors. You 
cannot afford to be so busy that you must neglect this 
precaution. 

799. Suggestions for Business Letters. 

(1) Be brief; speak directly to the point, and omit 
everything superfluous. 

(2) Write legibly. Do not expect a business man to 
waste his time in deciphering bad writing. Be especially 
careful in writing your name and address. 

(3) Avoid all ungrounded familiarity. What the busi- 
ness man wants is business, not your jokes. 

(4) Write sums of money in words. It is not necessary 
to use figures at all. 

(5) In ordering goods, give each item of your bill a 
separate line. 

(6) Read the letter carefully before placing it in the 
envelope. If you find errors, even minor ones, re-write 
the letter. 

800. Parts of a Letter. 

(1) The Heading ; as, — 

tfefot. /qZ, /8<?0. 

(2) The Address ; as, — 

(3) The Salutation ; as, — 



208 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(4) The Body; as,— 

&e/neL / m>&, ism/m&oLva/t&lu, . Ruzd/yyu' o, " l^vcwyvwuciv ob tA& 
SnytLoJb of&nt&'Vi&& cwvci ^nZnuOcUo&LLo-'vi to- (^o-m/JbcwLtto'vi.'' 

(5) The Subscription ; as, — 

801. The above-named parts should be put together in 
the following manner : — 

Boston, TFlams., 

TYlv. (Ztcm^o RL&&, (HkL&acfO-, Jit. 

lAo-wb kJyvicL iyyuv-ttatuyyv to- / nv& to- v-v&tt ucm 
cUvvtrvq v-ci^aZuyyi/ ho& iu>at 6-&&n / i&&&tu&ot. BuZ <J v-&vu 
wv'w&tv v&qv&t that wvu fata/nos ten, tk& wumZh, hoA)~& lorvq 
&Ln&& (y&&rL ^owuUeZ&d, cwioL that c/ oJvaZl not 6~& cu6Z& 
to- ume/fot. 

802. Notes. 

(a) It is well to form the habit of giving the county as a part of the 
address. It is necessary when writing from small places, and is not out 
of place at any time. 

(6) The name and address of the person addressed are essential in 
letters of business, and are often a convenience in those of friendship. 

(c) Several methods of punctuating the salutation are authorized by 
the best writers upon the subject. The simplest mark is the comma. You 
may use the comma alone or followed by the dash. You may also use 
the colon or the colon followed by the dash. 

(d) The first line of each paragraph of the letter should begin the same 
distance from the left edge of the paper as the address on the fourth line. 



LETTER WETTING. 



209 



THE ENVELOPE. 



803. The envelope should correspond in size to the 
paper to be enclosed. It should be for note paper a little 
longer than the sheet is wide, and its breadth should 
exceed one-third the length of the sheet. 

804. Great care should be observed in addressing the 
envelope. During a recent fiscal year 314,719 letters 
reached the Dead Letter Office at Washington because 
they were erroneously or illegibly addressed, while 14,134 
bore no superscription whatever. For small places give 
the county. For cities give the street and number of the 
person addressed. Be sure to give the proper abbrevia- 
tion for the name of the state. Place your name and 
address on the upper left-hand corner of the envelope. 
This is requested by the postal officials, and applies to 
books, packages, letters, and in fact to every parcel con- 
signed to the mails. In all cases write in lines parallel to 
the edge of the envelope. 

805. A properly addressed envelope will appear as fol- 
lows : — 















71%.. (JicVVjO /fy®&, 


<ao>, 

M. 





210 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 









TyiuLkeAAM, Jnd. 






/(j of. (ZlaAouwia, tft., 





806. If ^ i s desirable to place the number of the post-office box in the 
first form, it will be as follows : — 

Mr. Alonzo Rice, 

Box 96, 

Chicago, 

111. 

807. If m care °f another, as follows : — 

Mr. Alonzo Rice, 

In care of G. A. Maker, 
Chicago, 

111. 

808. The position of the name of the county would in no case be 
changed. 

809. Important precaution. — As you mail the letter, notice the super- 
scription carefully, so as to be sure it is correct. 

FOLDING THE LETTER. 

810. Place the sheet before you on the table, the first 
page uppermost and in proper position for reading. If it 
is note paper, fold the lower third up over the middle 



LETTER WRITING. 211 

third, and then bring the upper third down over both, 
being careful to keep the edges even. If it is letter paper, 
fold the lower half upward on the upper, and then pro- 
ceed as with note paper. In neither case is the sheet to 
be removed from the table until the process is complete. 



MODEL LETTERS. 

811. These are given to impress the form of the letter. 
The pupil must not endeavor to use the same language 
or thought in his letters, that is given in the model 
letters. 

812. (I.) Letter of Friendship. 

CHARLES ALBERT TO HIS MOTHER. 

Franklin, Ind., Jan. 13th, 1890. 
My Dear Mother: — 

I suppose you will think it strange to receive a letter from me so soon 
again, but I want father to send me some money. Ask him if he will 
please to send me forty cents so that I can have my skates mended. We 
have had delightful skating here for the last two weeks. Last Saturday 
night we had a moonlight carnival, and oh, what a delightful time we did 
have. The lake was smooth as glass, and frozen solid for nearly a mile 
square. There were more than a hundred skaters out. 

By the way, Mamma, I had quite an experience that night and want 
to ask you if I did right in the matter. A Chinaman was passing by, and 
some rough boys caught him and were dragging him out to the middle of 
the lake to duck him under the ice. I skated out to where they were and 
told them to let him alone, for it was neither smart nor manly to treat 
an unoffending person in such a way. They all let loose except one big 
fellow, and he became very angry and would have struck me had not the 
other boys prevented him. Now, Mamma, I want you to tell me whether 
I did right. Perhaps I should not have interfered, but I cannot bear to 
see any one imposed on. 

I am working hard with my studies, and haven't missed but once this 



212 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

term. I remember what father promised me if I would raise my class 
report this session. 

Hoping the next mail will bring me a letter from you, I am, 

Your affectionate son, 

Charles. 
P.S.: — 

Please don't forget the forty cents. You may send fifty, if you like. 
Indeed, I think it would go better in the letter ; don't you ? C. 

813. (II.) Business Letter. 

(a) Letters of Inquiry. (5) Orders, (c) Remittances. 

Salina Normal University, Salina, Kansas. 
Sept. 1, 1890. 
Rigdon Publishing Company, 

Danville, Ind. 
Gentlemen, 

Enclosed find 85 cts., for which please send me immediately Rigdon's 
" Grammar of the English Sentence and Introduction to Composition." 

Yours very respectfully, 

Jenny Lind Shelley. 

814. (III.) Letters of Courtesy. 

(a) Invitation. (5) Acceptance and Regrets. (<?) Con- 
gratulation and Condolence, (d) Introduction and Recom- 
mendation. 

815. Letter of Introduction. 

c/t&w- Ifovfc, fcwv- 7, f8<?0. 

/if an, @/Uvwqs fSatct/wAsn, 

<yfe^A /lfav-&m. (flowm,. 



WV& 



CV 



JJ&OAs <3W : — 

<$Yiv& l&tt&v waZL unZ / bocliv&£, ta yaw tk& 6~&cvv&v, 
7flv. /i-cuuvu oftcinl&U; w~ka Los jb&v&cyvicilVy kwiaiAyyv to 
a& a, ifOwviG vyvayyi at £^>0&&ltemZ eAava&teA,, / ^v / n& q / wciLuAs&& t 
cvncl vcvb& aAClvtu, //& cfO&Qs to- c/lf&w- /i-aw-em, Qs&&fci, / vi(f 
frWusatvovi OMs &ow/lLct&ntLa,L &l&vfo cuyid ^t&nacfvci^k&v wu 



LETTER WHITING. 213 

a, Q,w6^va/yiZvaZ la/M* Iaa/wih COyiu a&&\AX,a/vi&& uo-w wvaAf 
6<& cU)X& to- vemscLeAs favwu waaL (y& d&e/wv&oL a, fo&v&cyvuasl 
tosV-cyv to / wvu&&tt. Zlcyw wlII tvvicL Aa/wi* vyv eA^&nju w~anf 
wcyittvu at tfv& yiM&at &cm£vcL&'ri&&. ^&&ti/yva a^Qy / vo / b&cl 
h& w-vll L / mSJoA,&QA> uo-w a&> laA^ava/{>Zu a& h& Aaa> / vru& / of 
a/vyv ; a& &V-&V, 

Remark. — It is difficult to draw the line between letters of friendship 
and letters of courtesy. 

816. Letter of Condolence. 

Oxford, Miss., May 11, 1890. 
Mrs. Edward Conway, 

Paducah, Ky. 
My Dear Friend: — 

I write to express to you my sincere sympathy in this the trying hour 
of your great bereavement — the loss of your only son. No one can 
better realize the deep, deep grief of a mother's broken heart, for I, too, 
have known the same keen sorrow, and stood face to face with the same 
cold despair. I therefore do not bid you forget your grief. No, no ; such 
were idle words. Well did Irving say, " Sorrow for the dead is the only 
sorrow from which we refuse to be divorced." But I do bid you, my 
dear friend, let more cheering thoughts come in and occupy your heart, 
and crowd out the bitter remembrance of your bereavement. God sad- 
dens the heart to make it better for His great purpose. 

Yours in deepest sympathy, 

Minnie J. Furnam. 

817. Letters to the Public. 

These are sent to some newspaper or periodical. 

818. Note. — Write up everything that you think would be of interest 
to the public, and send it to the paper in which they would be most likely 
to read it. But do not be too much disappointed if you never see it in 
print ; editors are often so stupid as not to be able to discover any literary 
merit in what we regard as our finest productions. 



214 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

819. Suggestions. 

(1) Have something to say. 

(2) Begin to say it in your first sentence. 

(3) Continue to tell it in all the following sentences. 

(4) Stop when you are through. 

(5) Read over your manuscript, and see that it has all 
been correctly written with black ink on one side of small 
sheets, carefully numbered, but not rolled. 

820. Subjects for Letters. 

FOR THE UPPER CLASSES IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Write to renew your subscription to one of the publications which you 
enjoy, referring to some of its best points. 

Write a note of congratulation to a friend who has won a prize at 
school. 

Write a school friend for his company on an excursion, stating par- 
ticulars. 

Tell your sister in Paris the news from home. 

Write to a person of influence, asking him to recommend you for a 
certain business situation. 

FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL. 

Write a note to an American author, expressing the pleasure you have 
felt in reading his book. 

Write your sister at home while on a (supposed) visit to Washington. 

Write a note of regret that you cannot accept a friend's invitation to a 
musical entertainment. 

Reply to a former teacher's inquiry what progress you are making in 
gymnastics. 

Write your Cousin Clara, naming four of the Waverley novels which 
you would like to loan her for reading. 

Apply for a situation as book-keeper or teacher, stating briefly your 
qualifications. 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 215 



821. A GENERAL REVIEW. 

1. Define Grammar. 2. Language. 3. A sentence. 
4. English Grammar. 5. Name the practical objects to 
be accomplished by grammatical study. 6. What is the 
educational value of English Grammar? It strengthens 
all the intellectual processes, particularly discrimination, 
comparison, memory, conception, judgment, and reason. 
It has no value for the imagination. None, except in a 
general way, for the will. It may, however, be so pre- 
sented as to improve the esthetical judgment or the taste. 
7. What is meant by interpretation in language ? 8. What 
importance do you attach to speaking correctly ? 9. In 
what sense is Grammar a science ? In what an art ? 
10. Name and define the two divisions of Grammar. 
What other divisions are sometimes named ? Where do 
these properly belong ? 11. What is synthesis ? 12. What 
is analysis ? 13. Name the two parts of every thought. 
14. What are the two corresponding parts of every sen- 
tence ? 15. Define each. 16. What must the subject of 
a sentence always be ? 17. What must the predicate of a 
sentence always be ? 18. Name and illustrate the two 
parts of the predicate. 19. Show that each part may 
have a separate word. 20. Show that both parts may be 
combined in one word. 21. What is meant by the simple 
subject? The simple predicate? A complex subject? 
A complex predicate? 22. Instead of simple subject 
what other terms are sometimes used? The unmodified 
subject, the bare subject, or the grammatical subject. 
These same terms are applied also to the predicate. 



216 COMMON SCHOOL GEAMMAE. 

23. Instead of the complex subject what other terms 
are sometimes used ? The entire subject, the whole sub- 
ject, the complete subject, or the logical subject. These 
same terms are applied also to the predicate. 24. What 
is meant by the English language ? The language of 
England, or of the English people wherever spoken. 
25. Name the periods of its development. (a) The 
period from the earliest Teutonic speech in England, a.d. 
450 to a.d. 1150, the Anglo-Saxon period, lately often 
called Old English, Oldest English. In this early period 
the inflection of the English language was as complete as 
that of the Latin or the Greek. (5) The period from 
a.d. 1150 to a.d. 1350, called Early English. In the 
first part of this period many of its inflections were 
dropped, and in the latter part of this period large num- 
bers of French words were introduced, (c) The period 
from 1350 to 1550, the Chaucer period, the Old English of 
literature, now often called Middle English. In this 
period the Saxon and Norman elements were shaped into 
a new literary language, (d) The period since 1550, 
called Modern English. 26. How many words does the 
English language now contain? At least 300,000, and it 
is continually growing, accepting new words from every 
available source. 27. Name, define, and illustrate each 
of the parts of speech. 28. What is meant by comple- 
ment ? 29. What is an attributive complement ? Illustrate. 
30. What part of speech must an attributive complement 
be? 31. What is an objective complement? Illustrate. 
32. What part of speech must an objective complement 
be ? Illustrate. 33. Illustrate a transitive verb, an in- 
transitive verb, a copulative verb, an attributive verb. 
34. Name and illustrate four classes of sentences accord- 
ing to use. 35. Name and illustrate three classes of sen- 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 217 

tences according to form or structure. 36. What is a 
phrase ? 37. What is a clause ? 38. Classify (with illus- 
trations) phrases, (1) according to use, (2) according to 
basis, (3) according to structure. 39. Classify (with illus- 
trations) clauses, (1) according to use, (2) according to 
structure. 40. Arrange all the parts of speech in five 
classes. 41. What is meant by property of a part of 
speech? 42. What parts of speech have properties ? 
43. What properties does each have ? Illustrate. 44. 
What is inflection, declension, comparison, conjugation, 
synopsis ? 45. Name and illustrate nine uses of capital 
letters. 46. Name the marks commonly used in punctua- 
tion, and name and illustrate the principal uses of each. 
47. Define a noun, a substantive. 48. Name and define 
two general classes of nouns. 49. Why do we have two 
classes ? 50. When does a common noun become proper ? 
51. When does a proper noun become common? Illus- 
trate. 52. Name, define, and illustrate four sub-classes 
of common nouns. 53. What are the two uses of the 
collective nouns ? 54. Of what gender is it in each use ? 
55. Use the collective noun jury as the subject of a singu- 
lar verb, and as the antecedent of the pronoun it. 56. Use 
the collective noun jury as the subject of a plural verb 
and as the antecedent of the pronoun their. 57. Name 
the four properties of nouns. Define each. 58. Which 
of these properties are indicated by inflections ? 59. Which 
by different words ? 60. Which by position? 61. Name 
the three grammatical persons. Tell the use of each. 
Illustrate. 62. In what constructions may the first 
person be used ? A noun of the second person ? A 
noun of the third person? 63. Name the two numbers 
of nouns. Tell the use of each. Illustrate. 64. What 
are the two general methods of pluralizing nouns? 



218 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

65. Use in a sentence the plural form of each of the 
following nouns : book, lion, hat, branch, mouse, girl, 
fox, hiss, canto, grotto, portico, tyro, folio, portfolio, 
buffalo, calico, cargo, hero, echo, manifesto, mosquito, 
negro, mulatto, potato, tomato, tornado, volcano, brother, 
child, foot, goose, tooth, woman, deer, sheep, cod, trout, 
mackerel, cherub, index, nebula, radius, dictum, vortex, 
axis, amanuensis, genus, beau, automaton, criterion, analy- 
sis, crisis, basis, Miss, Mr., Mrs. 66. Name four nouns 
that are used only in the plural. 67. Name four nouns 
whose singular form and plural form are the same. 
68. How do you form the plural of letters, signs, fig- 
ures, etc. ? Illustrate. 69. How do you form the plural 
of proper nouns? Illustrate. 70. How do you form 
the plural of titles ? Illustrate. 71. What is gender ? 
72. How many genders do nouns have ? Why? 73. Dis- 
tinguish gender and sex. 74. In what ways can nouns 
indicate the sex of the objects they represent ? Illustrate. 
75. Name the cases of nouns. 76. What are the two 
divisions of the nominative case? 77. Name and illus- 
trate three dependent constructions of the nominative 
case. 78. Name and illustrate six independent or abso- 
lute constructions of the nominative case. 79. Name 
and illustrate two constructions of the possessive case. 
80. How is the possessive case of singular nouns indi- 
cated? Of plural nouns? 81. Name and illustrate five 
objective constructions. 82. What is meant by the indi- 
rect object? 83. How should these so-called indirect 
objects be disposed of ? 84. What is meant by objective 
by enallage? Illustrate. 85. What can be said of the 
object of an intransitive verb ? The object of a pas- 
sive verb? 86. When can a verb take two objects? 
87. What is a resultant or factitive object ? A resultant 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 219 

object is a noun so used as to give an additional name to 
that which is indicated by the direct object; as in the 
sentence, " God called the firmament heaven" " The 
people elected Washington president." "They called the 
boy John" A resultant object should be parsed as in 
apposition with the direct object. A resultant object 
always follows an active transitive verb. When the verb 
is changed to the passive voice, the resultant object be- 
comes a predicate noun in the nominative case; as, The 
firmament was called heaven. Washington was elected 
president. The boy was called John. 88. What is meant 
by the objective case without a governing word? Nouns of 
time, distance, measure, and value are sometimes said to 
be in the object case without a governing word; as, He 
spoke an hour. He walked a mile. The wheat was four 
pounds too light. The price is five dollars too high. It 
is better, however, in all such cases to parse these nouns 
as the object of some preposition not expressed. Usually 
it will be a simple preposition, sometimes a complex prep- 
osition; as, He spoke for an hour. He walked to the dis- 
tance of a mile. The wheat was by four pounds too 
light. The price is by five dollars too high. 89. What 
is apposition? To what cases does it apply? Illustrate. 
90. When is the possessive sign omitted? 91. Use a 
noun in the nominative absolute case with (subject of) a 
participle. 92. What is the person of a predicate noun ? 
A predicate noun is always of the third person. Prove 
it. 93. In what case is the subject of a finite verb ? 
94. When is the subject of an infinitive in the objective 
case ? When in the nominative ? 95. In what case is 
the subject of a participle? 96. In what case is the 
complement of a copulative verb ? 97. Write a sentence 
in which a noun is used as the complement of a finite 



220 COMMON SCHOOL GEAMMAE. 

copula in the nominative case. 98. Write a sentence in 
which a noun is used as the complement of an infinitive 
copula in the objective case. 99. Write a sentence in 
which a noun is used as the complement of an infinitive 
copula in the nominative case. 100. Write a sentence in 
which a noun is used as the complement of a participial 
copula in the nominative absolute case. 101. Write a 
sentence in which a participial copula has a subject in the 
nominative case and a complement in the nominative case. 
102. Write a sentence in which a participial copula has a 
subject in the possessive case and a complement in the 
nominative case. 103. What is a pronoun? 104. How 
many classes of pronouns are there? Why? Name them. 
Illustrate. 105. In what uses do pronouns resemble 
nouns? In what uses do pronouns differ from nouns? 
Nouns and pronouns resemble in that they may be used 
in the same constructions, — as a subject of a verb, the 
object of a verb, the object of a preposition, etc. They 
differ in this, that a pronoun may be the interrogative 
word in the sentence, while a noun cannot. A pronoun 
may have also a conjunctive use, while a noun cannot. 
106. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 107. What 
may the antecedent of a pronoun be ? Illustrate. 108. 
Criticise the following rule. A pronoun agrees with its 
antecedent in person, number, gender, and case. Illus- 
trate its incorrectness. 109. State it correctly. Illustrate. 
110. Name and illustrate an exception to this rule. 111. 
What do you know about the pronoun thon? 112. Each 
of the following pronouns has two possessive forms. My, 
mine ; thy, thine ; our, ours ; your, yours ; their, theirs ; 
her, hers. 113. When should the first be used, and when 
the second ? 114. Name and explain the two uses of the 
pronoun we. Illustrate. 115. Name and illustrate the 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 221 

peculiar uses of the pronoun it. 116. Name the sub- 
classes of the personal pronoun. 117. Name the simple 
personals and the compound personals. 118. Name and 
illustrate the two uses of compound personal pronouns. 
119. Decline each of the simple personal pronouns and 
use each declined form in a sentence. 120. Define a 
direct interrogative pronoun ; an indirect interrogative 
pronoun. 121. Use who and what as direct interroga- 
tives ; as indirect interrogatives. 122. What is a rela- 
tive pronoun ? 123. Name the simple relative pronouns. 

124. Name the compound relative pronouns, the double 
relative pronouns, the compound relative pronouns. 

125. Use the word what as a direct interrogative pro- 
noun, an indirect interrogative, and as a double relative 
pronoun. 126. What kind of an object can be named by 
the antecedent of the relative who, by the antecedent of 
the relative which, by the antecedent of the relative that? 
127. Name, define, and illustrate the two kinds of relative 
clauses. 128. What relative should be used in each, and 
how should each be punctuated ? 129. When is as a rel- 
ative pronoun ? Illustrate. 130. Explain the connective 
force of the relative pronoun. 131. In what respects do 
personal and relative pronouns agree ? In what do they 
differ ? 132. In what respects do personal and interroga- 
tive pronouns agree ? In what do they differ ? 133. In 
what respects do interrogative and relative pronouns agree, 
and in what do they differ ? 134. Decline the direct in- 
terrogative pronouns who and what, and use each declined 
form in a sentence. 135. Decline the indirect interroga- 
tive pronouns who and what, and use each declined form 
in a sentence. 136. Decline the relative pronouns who, 
which, and that, and use each declined form in a sentence. 
(Remember to use who or which in explanatory clauses, 



222 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

and that in restrictive clauses.) 137. Use the noun 
lawyer in sentences by Rules I. to VIII. 

Rule I. The lawyer won the case. (Nominative case.) 
Rule II I want the lawyer to win the case. (Objec- 
tive case.) 

Rule III (a) The lawyer having won the case, his 
client was pleased. (Nominative absolute case.) 

(6) The lawyers having won the case cannot be ques- 
tioned. (Possessive case.) 

Rule IV. We see the lawyer. (Objective case.) 
Rule V. We inquired for the lawyer. (Objective 
case.) 

Rule VI. (a) Smith is a lawyer. (Nominative case.) 
(6) We want Smith to be a lawyer. (Objective case.) 
(e) Smith being a lawyer, he gained his case. (Nomi- 
native absolute case.) 

(d) Exception. John's being a lawyer was questioned. 
(Nominative case.) 

Rule VII (a) Smith the lawyer came. (Nominative 
case.) 

(6) We saw Smith the lawyer. (Objective case.) 
(<?) Smith the lawyer's wife died. (Possessive case.) 
(c?) Smith the lawyer being present, we employed him. 
(Nominative absolute case.) 

Rule VIII The lawyer's horse was stolen. (Posses- 
sive case.) 

138. Use a personal pronoun of the first person, singu- 
lar number, common gender, by Rules I. to VIII. 139. 
Use a personal pronoun of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, by Rules I. to VIII. 140. Use a 
personal pronoun of the third person, singular number, 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 223 

feminine gender, by Rules I. to VIII. 141. Use a per- 
sonal pronoun of the third person, plural number, com- 
mon gender, by Rules I. to VIII. 142. Use a personal 
pronoun of the first person, plural number, common 
gender, by Rules I. to VIII. 143. Use the direct inter- 
rogative pronoun who by Rules I. to VIII. (You will 
find that not all of these rules will apply to the interroga- 
tive pronoun or to the relative.) 144. Use the direct 
interrogative pronoun what by Rules I. to VIII. 145. 
Use the indirect interrogative who by Rules I. to VIII. 
146. Use the indirect interrogative what by Rules I. to 
VIII. 147. Use the relative pronoun who (explanatory 
clauses) by Rules I. to VIII. 148. Use the relative pro- 
noun which (explanatory clauses) by Rules I. to VIII. 
149. Use the relative pronoun that (restrictive clauses) 
by Rules I. to VIII. 150. Name the nominative de- 
pendent constructions and illustrate each by (a) a noun, 
(J) a personal pronoun, (c) a direct interrogative pronoun, 
(d) an indirect interrogative pronoun, (e) a relative pro- 
noun. 151. Name the nominative absolute constructions 
and illustrate each in the same manner. 152. Name the 
objective constructions and illustrate each in the same 
manner. 153. What is an adjective ? 154. In what 
three ways may an adjective modify a noun ? 155. De- 
fine a direct adjective, predicate adjective, resultant or 
factitive adjective. 156. What other parts of speech are 
frequently used as adjectives? Illustrate. 157. Name 
the two general classes of adjectives. Define and illus- 
trate each. 158. Name and illustrate the sub-classes of 
the descriptive adjective, also the sub-classes of the 
definitive adjective. 159. What property belongs to the 
adjective ? 160. Name the degrees of the adjective. 
161. What adjectives can be compared? Those express- 



224 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

ing qualities or attributes that can exist in different 
degrees. 162. What adjectives cannot be compared ? 
Those expressing qualities or attributes that cannot exist 
in different degrees. 163. Name five descriptive adjec- 
tives that cannot be compared. 164. What are the 
methods of comparison ? Illustrate each. (Remember 
that any adjective that may be compared by ascending 
comparison may also by descending.) 165. Use the 
word pleasing (a) as a predicate adjective in the com- 
parative degree by ascending comparison. (V) As a 
predicate adjective in the superlative degree by descend- 
ing comparison, (e) As a direct adjective in the positive 
degree, (c?) As a resultant adjective in the comparative 
degree by descending comparison. 166. In how many 
different degrees may any quality like pleasing, long, 
beautiful, or old exist ? 167. How many of these may be 
expressed by the adjective ? Then how many degrees do 
adjectives have ? 168. When should the positive degree 
be used ? When the comparative ? When the superla- 
tive ? Illustrate. 169. What is the ordinary position of 
the adjective? 170. When may it take another position ? 
171. What are the most common liabilities to error in the 
use of adjectives ? Every one should be exceedingly care- 
ful in the selection of his words,. Do not fall into the 
habit of using some one adjective or adverb to denote 
almost every approvable quality. 



Instead of the expres- 
sions : — 


The following are prefer 
able : — • 


It tastes nice, 
She walks nicely, 
He did it nicely, 
She looks nice, 
The water is nice, 




It tastes delicious, 
She walks gracefully, 
He did it skillfully, 
She looks charming, 
The water is refreshing, 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 225 

It has a nice odor, It has a savory odor, 

It is a nice landscape, It is a lovely landscape, 

She has a nice smile, She has a winning smile, 

He owns a nice mansion, He has a luxurious mansion, 

I like a nice cottage, I like a snug cottage, 
Every one prefers a nice compan- Every one prefers an agreeable 
ion, companion. 

172. What is a verb? Many prefer to define a verb as 
that part of speech which asserts, thus excluding infini- 
tives and participles. But this definition will exclude 
also nearly all verbs in the subordinate sentence ; for they 
do not assert, but only assume the action. Thus, in such 
sentences as " Who believes that the leopard can change 
its spots?" can change does not assert the action, it only 
assumes it ; yet every one admits that it is a verb. 

173. Name the five bases upon which verbs are classified. 

174. Name the classes upon each basis. Define and illus- 
trate each. Beware of the following definition: A transitive 
verb is one that requires an object to complete its meaning. 
The almost universal acceptance of this definition has re- 
sulted in much confusion. All verbs in the passive voice 
are transitive ; yet according to this definition we should 
have to call them intransitive, for no passive verb requires 
an object to complete its meaning. A better statement of 
it would be : A transitive verb is one that represents the 
action of an agent as affecting an object ; and, An intransitive 
verb is one that represents the action, being, or state as per- 
taining wholly to the agent. 175. Show that a verb usually 
transitive may be used intransitively. 176. Show that 
a verb usually intransitive may be used transitively. 
177. Try to master the difference between a copulative 
verb and an attributive verb. A verb is copulative when 
it is completed by something that belongs to the subject, 
or by something that is identical with the subject ; as, He 



226 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

is old, He was considered reliable, He seems honest, He 
was appointed chairman, He has been speaker. A verb is 
attributive when it is not followed by any such expres- 
sion. Usually an attributive verb may be expanded into 
two parts, a copula and an attribute. Thus, The horse 
trots, The man farms, The girl sings beautiful songs, may 
be expanded respectively into, The horse is a trotter, The 
man is a farmer, The girl is a singer of beautiful songs. 
Turn to the list of sentences on page 134, and tell which 
verbs are copulative and which are attributive. Expand 
each attributive verb into a copula and an attribute. For 
example, Plato reasons well, is equivalent to Plato is a 
good reasoner. 178. What is meant by a pure copulative 
verb, and what by an impure copulative verb? A verb 
is purely copulative when what follows belongs entirely 
to the subject ; as, George was sick, The lady is a musician. 
A verb is an impure copula when that which completes it 
belongs only partly to the subject, and is also, partially at 
least, adverbial in its force ; as, The post stands erect, He 
looks contented. 179. What verbs may be purely copula- 
tive? What verbs may be used as impure copulas? 

180. What is meant by a complex copula? Illustrate. 

181. What parts of speech may complete a copulative 
verb? 182. Discuss the following sentences: Her dress 
was torn, His coat was patched. What direction would 
you give for the proper parsing of such expressions? 
183. Is the verb to be ever attributive? When? Illus- 
trate. 184. When is it copulative? 185. Name all the 
different forms of the verb to be. 186. Use each form as 
a copulative verb, and each form as an attributive verb? 

187. Name the principal parts of the verbs. Define each. 

188. Define regular verbs, irregular verbs, complete verbs, 
defective verbs, redundant verbs. Let us remember that 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 227 

many of our incorrect expressions are misuses of verbs. 
It will be very profitable exercises to read the list of 
irregular verbs given in your grammar. Read them as 
follows : Abide, abode, abode; Am, was, been; Arise, arose, 
arisen. Do not simply read the list, but as you read the 
principal parts of every verb, use each of those parts in a 
correct sentence ; as, I arise, I arose, I have arisen. It 
will be very helpful, also, to remember the following : 

(a) No auxiliary is ever used with the past indicative; 

(b) No perfect participle can be used without some form of 
the verb be or some form of the verb have. Thus, we should 
always say, I went, I write, and I had gone, I had written. 
189. What are strong verbs ? Weak verbs? 190. Name 
the auxiliary verbs and use each form, in a sentence. 
191. Which of them may be used also as principal verbs? 
Illustrate. 192. Use was as a principal verb copulative ; 
as a principal verb attributive ; and as an auxiliary verb. 
193. Name and illustrate the different ideas that may be 
expressed by auxiliary verbs. 194. Give the rules for using 
shall and will, should and would. Illustrate by sentences. 
195. Name the properties of verbs. Define and illustrate 
each. Try to be accurate in your distinction. Make each 
statement tell exactly what it should tell. Do not say, for 
instance, Voice is that property of the verb which shows whether 
its subject acts or is acted upon. The subject of a verb 
never acts ; it is never acted upon. It merely stands for the 
doer or for the receiver of the act. Remember that a tran- 
sitive verb can have two voices, the active and the passive, 
while the intransitive verb can have but one, the active. 
A verb in the active voice is changed to the passive by 
making its object in the active become the subject in the 
passive. Thus, Columbus discovered America, is equiva- 
lent to, America was discovered by Columbus. Now since 



228 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

an intransitive verb has no object in the active, of course 
it cannot be put into the passive voice. But we must not 
for this reason say that it has no voice at all. Take the 
two sentences, for instance, Mr. Smith bought the farm, 
and Mr. Smith went to town. Why is bought in the 
active voice ? Because it makes its subject stand for the 
doer of the act. But the verb went also makes its subject 
stand for the doer of the act. Then it is in the active 
voice. It is true, of course, that the action expressed by 
the verb bought terminates upon an object, while the action 
expressed by the verb went does not. But this distinction 
is provided for in the classification of verbs, by saying that 
one is transitive and the other is intransitive. Now it is 
unnecessary to provide for it under voice. 196. What are 
the elements of the passive voice ? 197. Turn again to 
page 134 and tell what verbs are in the active voice and 
why ; what verbs are in the passive and why ; what verbs 
have no voice and why. A pure copulative verb has no 
voice because it does not express action at all and there- 
fore neither represents its subject as the doer or as the 
receiver. In this list also you may change, if possible, 
each active verb to a passive and each passive verb to an 
active. 198. What is mode ? 199. Name the six modes, 
and tell the use of each. 200. What are the principal 
ideas that the subjunctive mode expresses ? Illustrate. 
201. Name the signs of the subjunctive mode. 202. Can 
a verb be in the subjunctive mode without the sign ? 
Illustrate. 203. Must the subjunctive sign always be 
followed by the subjunctive mode ? Illustrate. 204. 
What determines the mode of the verb, the sign or the 
idea? 205. Name the leading ideas expressed by the 
potential mode. Illustrate. 206. What ideas are ex- 
pressed by the imperative mode ? 207. What is the use 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 229 

of the infinitive mode and the participial? 208. Name 
the tenses of verbs. Which are called primary, which 
secondary? 209. Define and illustrate each of the six 
tenses, and tell which of them belong to each of the modes. 
210. Name and illustrate three forms of the present tense, 
two forms of the present perfect, three of the past, two of 
the past perfect tense, two of the future tense, and two 
of the future perfect. 211. Name the signs of the tenses 
in the indicative mode. Illustrate by using the verb take 
in sentences. 212. Name the signs of the tenses in the 
potential mode. Illustrate by using the verb sing in 
sentences. 213. Illustrate the same in the subjunctive 
mode, the imperative mode, the infinitive mode, and the 
participial mode. 214. What is meant by saying that 
verbs have person and number, and agree with their sub- 
ject in person and number ? 215. To what extent do they 
agree ? 216. What is meant by conjugation, synopsis, 
and inflection of verbs ? 217. Conjugate the verbs see, 
sit, set, lie, lay, rise, raise, and use each form in a sentence. 
218. Give the synopsis of the verb ring in the first person, 
singular number. 219. Give the inflection of the verb 
do. 220. Write a sentence in which an imperative verb 
is used in the first person; in the third person. 221. 
Explain the difference between the two expressions, Long 
live the king, and The king lives long ; between Leave 
we this room, and We leave this room. 222. Should 
a verb having for its subject a collective noun be 
singular or plural? See page 138. 223. Review 
the exercises on pages 138 and 139. 224. What is 
an adverb ? 225. What may adverbs modify ? 226. Upon 
what two bases are adverbs classified ? 227. Name the 
classes. 228. Define and illustrate each. Wri^e four 
sentences containing conjunctive adverbs. 229 What 



230 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAE. 

does the conjunctive adverb always modify ? Some word 
in the subordinate sentence. It may be a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb. 230. To what does the conjunc- 
tive adverb join its subordinate sentence ? It may be a 
verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a noun. When a 
conjunctive adverb joins its subordinate sentence to a noun 
it performs a part of the function of a relative pronoun, 
and is therefore called a relative adverb, as in the sentence, 
The ice where the boys are is very thin. Be careful to 
observe the distinction between the conjunctive adverb 
and the interrogative adverb. In the sentence, Live where 
your friends are, where is a conjunctive adverb. It limits 
the verb are and joins the subordinate sentence, where your 
friends are, to the verb live. But in the sentence, Where 
are your friends ? where is a direct interrogative adverb ; 
and in the sentences, Where are your friends is the ques- 
tion, The question is, where are your friends, It is uncer- 
tain where his friends are, and I know where his friends 
are, where in each case is an indirect interrogative adverb, 
having no connective force whatever. No interrogative 
adverb, whether direct or indirect, has any connective use. 

231. What is meant by an adverbial phrase ? Illustrate. 

232. Illustrate the comparison of adverbs. 233. Use 
the word well in all of its different degrees as an adverb. 
Use it in all of its different degrees as an adjective. 
234. When should an intransitive verb be followed by an 
adjective ? When by an adverb ? Illustrate. 235. Give 
three directions for the correct use of the adverb. Illus- 
trate what you mean by each. 236. What is a preposi- 
tion ? 237. Name, define, and illustrate the terms of its 
relation. 238. What may be the antecedent of a preposi- 
tion ? What may be the object of a preposition ? Illus- 
trate. 239. Name, define, and illustrate the three kinds of 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 231 

prepositions. 240. What is it to parse a preposition? 
241. Name the errors in the use of prepositions. 242. What 
is a conjunction ? 243. Name the two classes of con- 
junctions as to use. 244. Define and illustrate each. 
245. Name, define, and illustrate the classes of conjunc- 
tions as to meaning. Be very careful to distinguish a 
co-ordinate conjunction from a subordinate. Remember 
that co-ordinate conjunctions always join two elements having 
the same grammatical construction. That is, if one of these 
elements is the object of a verb, the other must be the 
object of the same verb; if one is the object of a preposi- 
tion, the other must be the object of the same preposition; 
if one is the complement of a copulative verb, the other 
must be a complement of the same copulative verb, and so 
on. A subordinate conjunction never joins two parts having 
the same grammatical construction. It always joins a sub- 
ordinate sentence to that part of the principal sentence which 
the subordinate explains. It may be a verb, an adjective, or 
an adverb. Illustrate. 246. What is an interjection ? 
247. What is an infinitive ? Illustrate. 248. What is a 
participle ? Illustrate. 249. To what part of speech do 
infinitives and participles belong? Why? 250. Show 
that a finite verb does not always assert. 251. Show 
that an infinitive or participle may be an attributive 
verb or a copulative verb. 252. Show that an infin- 
itive or participle may be transitive or intransitive. 
253. Show that an infinitive or participle may express 
action, being, or state. 254. Show that infinitives and par- 
ticiples have voice. 255. Show that infinitives and parti- 
ciples have mode. 256. Show that infinitives and par- 
ticiples have tense. 257. What tenses have they ? Illus- 
trate in the active voice and in the passive. 258. What 
time is expressed by the present infinitive and the present 



232 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

participle? Illustrate. 259. What time is expressed by 
the present perfect infinitive and the present perfect parti- 
ciple ? Illustrate. 260. Does an infinitive have a sub- 
ject ? Give your reasons. 261. If it does, in what case 
is its subject ? Why ? 262. Does a participle have a sub- 
ject ? Give your reasons. 263. If it does, in what case 
is its subject? Why? 264. In what case is the comple- 
ment of a copulative infinitive ? 265. In what case is the 
complement of a copulative participle ? 266. Besides 
their verbal use what other uses do infinitives and partici- 
ples have ? Illustrate. 267. When does an infinitive or 
participle have the construction of a noun? Illustrate. 
268. When does an infinitive or participle have the con- 
struction of an adjective ? Illustrate. 269. When does 
an infinitive or participle have the construction of an 
adverb ? Illustrate. An infinitive usually has the con- 
struction of a noun or an adverb, very seldom of an 
adjective. In the following sentence, however, the infini- 
tive has the construction of a direct adjective. My oppor- 
tunity to accept the position was neglected, and in the 
sentence, Good opportunities are not to be neglected, the 
infinitive has the construction of a predicate adjective. A 
participle usually has the construction of an adjective or a 
noun, very seldom of an adverb. It is used adverbially in 
such sentences as, He came stumbling along. A participle 
loses its verbal force and becomes merely a noun when 
it is limited by the definite article the or an adjective ; 
as, The falling of the tree, Ordinary standing, etc. A 
participle becomes a direct adjective when it is placed 
immediately before the noun it limits ; as, A blustering 
manner. A participle sometimes becomes a predicate 
adjective ; as in the sentence, Pleasure is enticing. A 
participle becomes a resultant or factitive adjective in such 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 233 

sentences as, Her charms made her winning. In such 
sentences as the following : It is amusing me, We are 
buying corn, etc., the participle is used merely to make 
the progressive form of the finite verb, and cannot be 
parsed alone. Is amusing and are buying should be parsed 
just the same as amuses and buy, except that the former 
are in the progressive form while the latter have the 
ordinary form. 270. What is the sign of the infinitive ? 
271. How should it be regarded? 272. When is it 
omitted ? 273. How should infinitives and participles be 
parsed ? 274. Write the present and present perfect 
infinitives and participles in the active voice, and also the 
present and present perfect infinitives and participles in 
the passive voice from the verbs find, sit, set, take, buy, and 
write. Use each infinitive and each participle in a sen- 
tence. 275. Use the word pleasing — 

(a) As a part of the progressive form of a finite verb, 
(6) as a predicate adjective, (c) as a resultant adjective, 
(d) as a direct adjective, (e) as a noun, (/) as a partici- 
ple with the construction of an adjective, (g) as a partici- 
ple with the construction* of a noun, subject of an infinitive, 
(It) as a participle with the construction of a noun, sub- 
ject of a finite verb, (i) as a participle with the construc- 
tion of a noun, the complement of a finite copula, (/) as a 
participle with the construction of a noun, complement of 
an infinitive copula, (&) as a participle with the construc- 
tion of a noun, object of a transitive verb, (T) as a partici- 
ple with the construction of a noun, object of a preposition, 
(m) as a participle with the construction of a noun, in 
apposition. 

276. What is meant by abridgement of sentences? 
What is meant by expansion? Illustrate. 277. What 



234 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

is meant by analysis of sentences ? 278. Make a com- 
plete classification of sentences and their elements, and 
define and illustrate each term you use. 279. Name the 
three classes of subordinate clauses. 280. In what ways 
may a substantive clause be used ? An adjective clause ? 
An adverbial clause ? Illustrate. 281. What are the 
advantages of parsing ? First, it is a most excellent way 
to impress upon the mind grammatical principles. Second, 
it causes one to be more discriminating in his examination 
of expressions. Third, it teaches punctuation and capi- 
talization. The same may be said of written analysis. 
It must be admitted, however, that it is possible and even 
easy for the teacher to conduct exercises in parsing and 
analysis in a purely mechanical way, so that no practical 
good will result from either. We should never discuss 
a principle without emphasizing the importance of its 
application to our own language, and we should never 
require a class to give the grammatical analysis of a sen- 
tence whose meaning they do not understand. We must 
bear in mind that interpretation is one of the main ends 
of grammatical study. If we do this, then it cannot 
be rightly urged against parsing and analysis that they 
serve only to make language meaningless and distasteful. 
These are very frivolous and superficial criticisms. All 
scholars now recognize that a thorough knowledge of 
Grammar is exceedingly valuable to any one, and indis- 
pensable to those who hope to continue their study 
through higher branches, and it is well established also 
that this thorough understanding of Grammar necessitates 
much work in parsing and analysis, both written and oral. 
By taking a little thought as to the manner of conduct- 
ing these exercises, the teacher may make them very inter- 
esting as well as instructive. 282. What objection is 



A GENERAL REVIEW. 235 

there to making diagrams of sentences ? The following 
objection is often heard. "A student must understand 
how to analyze a sentence before he can make a diagram 
of it, and after he can analyze it, making the diagram 
will be of no use to him." But a little thought will show 
that this objection is not very well founded, for while it 
may be true that if the pupil could analyze the sentence 
it would be of no use to him to make a diagram of it, 
yet the diagram will show the teacher whether the pupil 
understands the sentence or not, and it will also give the 
teacher an opportunity to exhibit to the entire class their 
errors in understanding, and to indicate briefly the cor- 
rections they need to make. Making a diagram of a sen- 
tence is just like making a demonstration of a proposition 
or the solution of a problem. It can be said with just as 
much reason that a pupil must understand a problem be- 
fore he can make a solution and after he understands it 
there is no need of his making a solution. But as we all 
know the solution is nevertheless necessary to show the 
teacher that the pupil does understand the problem and 
to enable him to make the necessary criticisms upon it. 
Therefore the work in diagraming sentences may be made 
very valuable from the esthetic standpoint ; for careful 
work of this kind is very beautiful, and will improve the 
general taste of the pupil. 



236 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 



822. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR PARS- 
ING AND ANALYSIS. 

Note. — The teacher should require the class to express in their own 
language the meaning of every sentence before they attempt to parse its 
words or analyze it, particularly when the meaning is striking or obscure, 
and also it will be a very valuable exercise to require the pupil to commit 
to memory some of the most suggestive quotations and to make brief 
comments. 

(1) Benevolence is a duty and a pleasure. 

(2) O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain. 

(3) In the lexicon of youth there is no such a word as 
fail. 

(4) Absence of occupation is not rest. 

(5) No noble human thought, however buried in the 
dust of ages, can ever come to naught. 

(6) Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in 
rising every time we fall. 

(7) The lightest wave of influence, set in motion, 
extends and widens to the eternal shore. 

(8) If a man empties his purse into his head, no one 
can take it away from him. An investment in knowledge 
always pays the best interest. — Benjamin Franklin. 

(9) The heights of great men reached and kept, 

Were not attained by sudden flight ; 
But they, while their companions slept, 
Were toiling upward in the night. 

— Longfellow. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 237 

(10) Do not think to substitute loud talk for strong 
reasoning. 

(11) Tears are the softening showers which cause the 
seed of heaven to spring up in the heart. 

(12) Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains ; 

They crowned him long ago 
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, 
With a diadem of snow. — Byron. 

(13) You should never hope to govern others until you 
have learned to govern yourself. 

(14) Sam Johnson on Goldsmith: "No man is more 
foolish when he had not a pen in his hand, nor more wise 
when he had." 

(15) One is sometimes tempted to wish that the super- 
lative could be abolished, or its use allowed only to old 
experts. — 0. W. Holmes. 

(16) This is truth the poet sings, 

That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering 
happier things. — Tennyson. 

(17) Every individual has a place to fill in the world, 
and is important in some respects, whether he chooses to be 
so or not. — Hawthorne. 

(18) Write it on your heart that every day is the best 
day in the year. — Emerson. 

(19) The Persians used to say that ten measures of talk 
had been sent down from heaven and that the women 
had taken nine of them. 



238 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(20) Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts in glad surprise 

To higher levels rise. — Longfellow. 

(21) Any life that is worth living must be a struggle 
against the stream. — Bean Stanley. 

(22) When a man has not a good reason for doing a 
thing, he has one good reason for letting it alone. 

— Sir Walter Scott. 

(23) The generosity of a sea-sick sufferer in giving 
away the delicacies which seemed so desirable on starting, 
is not ranked very high on the books of the recording 
angel. — 0. W. Holmes. 

(24) I slept and dreamed that life is Beauty ; 
I woke and found that life is Duty. 

(25) I have found you an argument ; I am not obliged 
to find you an understanding. 

(26) A tart temper never mellows with age ; and a 
sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener 
with constant use. — Irving. 

(27) Years steal 
Fire from the mind, as vigor from the limb ; 
And life's enchanted cup but sparkles near the 

brim. — Byron. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 239 

Verily, 
I swear it is better to be lowly born, 
And range with humble livers in content, 
Than to be perked up in a glittering grief, 
And wear a golden sorrow. 

Orpheus with his lute made trees 
And the mountain tops that freeze 

Bow themselves when he did sing 
To his music plants and flowers 
Ever sprung ; as sun and showers 

There had been a lasting spring. 

Everything that heard him play, 
Even the billows of the sea, 

Hung their heads and then lay by ; 
In sweet music is such art 
Killing care and grief of heart, 

Fall asleep, or hearing, die. 

Like the lily 
That once was mistress of the field and flourished, 
I'll hang my head and perish. 

Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness. 
This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth 
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost, 
And — when he thinks, good, easy man, full surely 
His greatness is a-ripening — nips his root, 
And then he falls, as I do. I have ventured, 
Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, 



24:0 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

This many summers in a sea of glory, 
But far beyond my depth ; my high-blown pride 
At length broke under me, and now has left me, 
Weary and old with service, to the mercy 
Of a rude stream, that must ever hide me. 
Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye ; 
I feel my heart new opened. Oh, how wretched 
Is that poor man who hangs on princes' favors. 
There is, betwixt that smile we would aspire to, 
That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin, 
More pangs and fears than wars or women have ; 
And when he falls, he falls like Lucifer, 
Never to hope again. 

Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition ; 

By that sin fell the angels ; how can man, then, 

The image of his Maker, hope to win by it ? 

Love thyself last ; cherish those hearts that hate thee ; 

Corruption wins not more than honesty ; 

Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace 

To silence envious tongues. Be just and fear not ; 

Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 

Thy God's and truth's ; then if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, 

Thou fall'st a blessed martyr. Serve the king ; 

And, prithee, lead me in ; 

There take an inventory of all I have 

To the last penny ; 'tis the king's ; my robe, 

And my integrity to Heaven is all 

I dare now call mine own. O Cromwell, Cromwell, 

Had I but served my God with half the zeal 

I served my king, he would not in my age 

Have left me naked to mine enemies. 

— Shakespeare, King Henry VIIL 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 241 

When remedies are past, the griefs are ended 

By seeing the worst, which late on hopes depended. 

To mourn a mischief that is past and gone 

Is the next way to draw new mischief on. 

What cannot be preserved when fortune takes, 

Patience her injury a mockery makes. 

The robb'd that smiles steals something from the thief ; 

He robs himself that spends a bootless grief. 

Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see ; 
She has deceived her father, and may thee. 

O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to 
be known by, let us call thee devil ! 

O God, that men should put an enemy in their mouths 
to steal away their brains ! that we should, with joy, pleas- 
ance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts ! 

Who steals my purse steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; 
But he that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. 

O, beware, my lord, of jealousy ! 
It is the green-eyed monster which doth make 
The meat it feeds on. 

Poor and content is rich, and rich enough ; 
But riches fineless is as poor as Winter 
To him that ever fears he shall be poor. 

Trifles light as air 

Are to the jealous confirmations strong 

As proofs of Holy Writ. 



242 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

He that is robb'd, not wanting what is stol'n, 
Let him not know't, and he's not robb'd at all. 

Shakespeare, Othello. 



Time shall unfold what plighted cunning hides : 
Who cover faults, at last shame them derides. 

Ingratitude, thou marble -hearted fiend, 

More hideous when thou show'st thee in a child 

Than the sea-monster. 

How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child. 

Striving to better, oft we mar what's well. 

O sir, to willful men 
The injuries that they themselves procure 
Must be their schoolmasters. 

Wisdom and goodness to the vile seem vile. 

Plate sin with gold, 

And the strong lance of justice hurtless breaks. 

The gods are just, and our pleasant vices 
Make instruments to plague us. 

But where the greater malady is fix'd, 
The lesser is scarce felt. Thou'dst shun a bear ; 
But, if thy flight lay toward the roaring sea, 
Thou'dst meet the bear i' the mouth. 

Shakespeare, King Lear. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 243 

But indeed Conviction, were it never so excellent, is 
worthless till it converts itself into Conduct. 

Books are the true levelers. They give to all who 
faithfully use them the society, the presence of the best 
and greatest of our race. 

Thought is deeper than all speech, 
Feeling deeper than all thought ; 

Souls to souls can never teach 

What unto themselves was taught. 

It matters very little what immediate spot may have 
been the birthplace of such a man as Washington. No 
people can claim, no country can appropriate him. The 
boon of Providence to the human race, his fame is eternity 
and his dwelling-place creation. — Everett. 

And do you now put on your best attire ? 
And do you now cull out a holiday ? 
And do you now strew flowers in his way 
That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood ? 

— Shakespeare, Julius Ccesar. 

So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 
To the pale realms of shade where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

— Bryant, Thanatopsis. 



244 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Sweet Portia, 
If you did know to whom I gave the ring, 
If you did know for whom I gave the ring, 
And would conceive for what I gave the ring, 
And how unwillingly I left the ring, 
When naught would be accepted but the ring, 
You would abate the strength of your displeasure. 

If you had known the virtue of the ring, 
Or half her worthiness that gave the ring, 
Or your own honor to contain the ring, 
You would not then have parted with the ring. 

— Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice. 

Flower in the crannied wall, 

I pluck you out of the crannies ; — 
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, 
Little flower ; - — but if I could understand 
What you are, root and all, and all in all, 
I should know what God and man is. 

— Tennyson. 

Signor Antonio, many a time and oft 

In the Rialto you have rated me 

About my moneys and my usances : 

Still I have borne it with a patient shrug ; 

For sufferance is the badge of all our tribe. 

You call me misbeliever, cut-throat, dog, 

And spit upon my Jewish gaberdine, 

And all for use of that which is mine own. 

Well, then, it now appears, you need my help. 

Go to, then ; you come to me, and you say : 

" Shylock, we would have moneys." You say so ; 

You that did void your rheum upon my beard, 






MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 245 

And foot me, as you spurn a stranger cur 
Over your threshold ; moneys is your suit. 
What should I say to you ? Should I not say : 
" Hath a dog money ? Is it possible 
A cur can lend three thousand ducats ? " or 
Shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, 
With 'bated breath and whispering humbleness, 
Say this : 

" Fair Sir, you spit on me on Wednesday last ; 
You spurned me such a day ; another time 
You called me dog ; and for these courtesies 
I'll lend you thus much moneys ? " 

— Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice. 

There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at its flood, leads on to fortune ; 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows, and in miseries : 

And we must take the current when it serves, 

Or lose our ventures. 

"lis the mind that makes the body rich ; 

And as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, 

So honor peereth in the meanest habit. 

What, is the jay more precious than the lark, 

Because his feathers are more beautiful ? 

Or is the adder better than the eel, 

Because his painted skin contents the eye ? 

— Shakespeare. 

Lord, Thou hast been our dwelling-place in all genera- 
tions. Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever 
Thou hadst formed the earth and the world, even from 
everlasting to everlasting, Thou art God. 



246 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR, 

As it fell upon a day 

In the merry month of May, 

Sitting in a pleasant shade 

Which a grove of myrtles made, 

Beasts did leap and birds did sing, 

Trees did grow and plants did spring, 

Everything did banish moan, 

Save the nightingale alone. — Bamfield. 

A million little diamonds twinkled on the trees ; 

A million little maidens said : " A jewel if you please." 

But while they held their hands outstretched to catch the 

diamonds gay, 
A million little sunbeams came and stole them all away. 

The day is done, and the darkness 
Falls from the wings of Night, 

As a feather is wafted downward 

From an eagle in his flight. — Longfellow. 

All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 

Whose body nature is, and God the soul, 

That changed through all, and yet in all the same, 

Great in the earth as in the ethereal frame, 

Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 

Glows in the stars and blossoms in the trees. — Pope. 

So through the night rode Paul Revere ; 

And so through the night went his cry of alarm 

To every Middlesex village and farm, — 

A cry of defiance and not of fear, — 

A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door, 

And a word that shall echo forevermore. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 247 

For, borne on the night- wind of the Past, 
Through all our history, to the last, 
In the hour of darkness and peril and need, 
The people will waken and listen to hear 
The hurrying hoof -beats of that steed, 
And the midnight message of Paul Revere. 

— Longfellow. 

The night is mother of the day, 

The winter of the spring ; 
And ever upon old decay 

The greenest mosses cling. 
Behind the cloud the starlight lurks, 

Through showers the sunbeams fall ; 
For God, who loveth all His works, 

Has left His hope with all. — Whittier. 

Alas for him who never sees 
The stars shine through the cypress trees. 
Who, hopeless, lays his dead away, 
Nor looks to see the breaking day 
Across the mournful marbles play. 
Who hath not learned in hours of faith 

The truth, to flesh and sense unknown, 
That life is ever lord of Death, 

And Love can never lose its own. — Whittier. 

There is a time in every man's education when he 
arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance ; that 
imitation is suicide ; that he must take himself, for better 
or for worse, as his portion ; that, though the wide uni- 
verse is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can 
come to him but through his toil bestowed on that plot 
of ground which is given him to till. — Emerson. 



248 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Words learned by rote a parrot may rehearse, 

But talking is not always to converse ; 

Not more distinct from harmony divine 

The constant creaking of a country sign. — Cowper. 

I live for those that love me, — 
For those who know me true ; 

For the heaven that smiles above me, 
And awaits my spirit, too ; 

For the cause that lacks assistance, 

For the wrong that needs resistance, 

For the future in the distance, 

And the good that I can do. — Banks. 

The brooklet came from the mountain, 

As sang the bard of old, 
Running with feet of silver 

Over the sands of gold. 
Far away in the briny ocean 

There rolled a turbulent wave, 
Now singing along the sea-beach, 

Now howling along the cave. 
And the brooklet has found the billow, 

Though they flowed so far apart, 
And has filled with its freshness and sweetness 

That turbulent, bitter heart. — Longfellow. 

The sea, the sea, the open sea, 

The blue, the fresh, the ever free ; 

Without a mark, without a bound, 

It runneth the earth's wide regions round ; 

It plays with the clouds, it mocks the skies, 

Or like a cradled creature lies. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 249 

I'm on the sea, I'm on the sea, 

I am where I ever would be, 

With the blue above and the blue below, 

And silence wheresoe'er I go. 

If a storm should come and awake the deep, 

What matter ? I shall ride and sleep. 

— Barry Cornwall. 

In a valley, centuries ago, 

Grew a little fern leaf, green and slender, 

Veining delicate and fibres tender ; 
Waving when the wind crept down so low. 

Rushes tall, and moss, and grass grew round it, 

Playful sunbeams darted in and found it, 

Drops of dew stole in by night and crowned it, 

But no foot of man e'er trod that way ; 

Earth was young, and keeping holiday. 

Monster fishes swam the silent main, 

Stately forests waved their giant branches, 
Mountains hurled their snowy avalanches, 

Mammoth creatures stalked across the plain ; 
Nature reveled in grand mysteries, 
But the little fern was not of these, 
Did not number with the hills and trees ; 
Only grew and waved its wild sweet way, 
None ever came to note it day by day. 

Earth one time put on a frolic mood, 

Heaved the rocks and changed the mighty motion 

Of the deep, strong currents of the ocean, 
Moved the plain and shook the haughty wood, 

Crushed the little fern in soft moist clay, — 

Covered it, and hid it safe away. 



250 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

Oh, the long, long centuries since that day ! 
Oh, the agony ! Oh, life's bitter cost, 
Since that useless little fern was lost ! 

Useless? Lost? There came a thoughtful man, 
Searching Nature's secrets, far and deep ; 
From a fissure in a rocky steep 
He withdrew a stone, o'er which there ran 
Fairy pencilings, a quaint design, 
Veinings, leafage, fibres clear and fine, 
And the fern's life lay in every line ! 
So, I think, God hides some souls away, 
Sweetly to surprise us, the last day. 

— Mary Bolles Branch. 

Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage ; 
Minds innocent and quiet take 

That for an heritage : 
If I have freedom in my love, 

And in my soul am free, 
Angels alone, that soar above, 

Enjoy such liberty. — Lovelace. 

I heard a thousand blended notes, 

While in a grove I sat reclined, 
In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts 

Bring sad thoughts to the mind. 

To her fair works did nature link 

The human soul that through me ran ; 

And much it grieved my heart to think 

What man has made of man. — Wordsworth. 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. 251 



823. INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. 

A. Forms of Discourse. 

(a) Narration, (b) Description, (c) Argument. 

B. Divisions of Rhetoric. 

(a) Invention, (b) Style. 

824. Rhetoric is the science which treats of the principles 
of discourse. Discourse is any coherent literary produc- 
tion whatever, containing at least a series of sentences. 

825. Forms of Discourse. — There are three principal 
forms of discourse, — Narration, Description, and Argu- 
ment. 

826. Narration is the orderly recounting of the particulars 
of any transaction. In narration one must observe the 
logical order, as well as the chronological ; that is, one 
must not only give events their order in time, but he 
must show also their causal order. We are not satisfied 
to know of any event, after what other event it occurred ; 
we insist upon knowing also, on account of what other 
event it occurred. History and biography are largely 
narration. 

827. General Rule for Narration. — 

A tale should be judicious, clear, succinct ; 
The language plain, and incidents well linked ; 
Tell not as new what everybody knows, 
And, new or old, still hasten to a close. 
There cent' ring in a focus, round and neat, 
Let all your rays of information meet. — Cowper. 

828. Description is such a setting forth of one's concept of 
any individual object, material or spiritual, as will enable 



252 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

another to form a similar concept of it. Description is not 
merely an enumeration 01 an object's characteristics ; it is 
also an exhibition of their relations to one another and to 
the object itself. Description, and narration as well, 
depends upon accuracy of observation, fidelity of memory, 
and a sense of fitness in expression. Books on travel, 
popular science, and fiction are largely narration and 
description. Here is a good example of description as 
applied to material objects : — 

Alpine Scenery. 

Above me are the Alps, the glorious Alps ! 

The palaces of Nature, whose vast walls 

Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, 

And throned Eternity in icy halls 

Of cold sublimity, where forms and falls 

The avalanche, — the thunderbolt of snow ! 

All that expands the spirit, yet appalls, 

Gathers around these summits, as to show 

How Earth may pierce to Heaven, yet leave vain man below. 

— Byron. 

For description of a spiritual object I know of nothing 
better than Portia's speech to Shylock and Paul's descrip- 
tion of Love : - — 

The quality of mercy is not strain'd, 

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 

Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless' d, 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes : 

'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes 

The throned monarch better than his crown : 

His scepter shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; 

But mercy is above this sceptered sway ; 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings ; 

It is an attribute to God himself ; 

And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. . 253 

When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, 
Though justice be thy plea, consider this, — 
That, in the course of justice, none of us 
Should see salvation ; we do pray for mercy ; 
And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 
The deeds of mercy. — Merchant of Venice. 

Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not 
charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. And 
though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all 
knowledge ; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove moun- 
tains, and have not charity, I am nothing. And though I bestow all my 
goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and 
have not charity, it profiteth me nothing. Charity suffereth long, and is 
kind ; charity envieth not ; charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, 
doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily pro- 
voked, thinketh no evil ; rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the 
truth ; beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth 
all things. — I. Corinthians. 

829. Argument is such a disposition of facts as will lead 
toward the proof or the overthrow of a proposition. One's 
success at this form of composition or discourse will 
depend mainly upon these three things, — the clearness 
with which he grasps the facts, the force with which he 
expresses them, and the correctness mid force with which he 
draivs and sets forth the inferences involved in the facts. 

830. An argument may take either of two forms, induc- 
tive or deductive. An Inductive Argument is one in which 
a number of particular facts are so produced as to point 
toward the establishment of the general truth to which they 
all belong. A Deductive Argument is one in which two 
propositions, called a major and a minor, are so arranged as 
to show that they imply the truth of a third. 

The propositions from which we reason are called 
Premises ; the proposition to which we reason is called the 
Conclusion. General propositions are established by in- 



254 . COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

duction, but in applying a general proposition to the proof 
of a particular, we employ deduction. 

A good example of an inductive argument is found in 
the following extract from the speech in which Daniel 
Webster attempted to show that a man charged with 
murder had a motive for committing the crime : — 

"Joseph Knapp had a motive to desire the death of Mr. White, and 
that motive has been shown. He was connected by marriage with the 
family of Mr. White. His wife was the daughter of Mrs. Beckford, who 
was the only child of a sister of the deceased. The deceased was more 
than eighty years old, and had no children. His only heirs were nephews 
and nieces. He was supposed to be possessed of a very large fortune, 
which would have descended, by law, to his several nephews and nieces 
in equal shares ; or, if there was a will, then according to the will. But 
as he had but two branches of heirs, the children of his brother, Henry 
White, and of Mrs. Beckford, each of these branches, according to the 
common idea, would have shared one half of his property. This popular 
idea is not legally correct. But it is common, and very probably was 
entertained by the parties. According to this idea, Mrs. Beckford, on 
Mr. White's death without a will, would have been entitled to one half of 
his ample fortune ; and Joseph Knapp had married one of her three 
children." 

The following from Cardinal Newman is a good ex- 
ample of a deductive argument : — 

" It is the fashion just now, as you very well know, to erect so-called 
Universities, without making any provision in them at all for Theological 
chairs. Institutions of this kind exist both here [Ireland] and in England. 
Such a procedure, though defended by writers of the generation just 
passed with much plausible argument and not a little wit, seems to me an 
intellectual absurdity ; and my reason for saying so runs, with whatever 
abruptness, into the form of a syllogism: A University, I should lay 
down, by its very name professes to teach universal knowledge : Theology 
is surely a branch of knowledge : how then is it possible for it to profess 
all branches of knowledge, and yet to exclude from the subjects of its 
teaching one which, to say the least, is as important and as large as any 
of them. I do not see that either premise of this argument is open to 
exception." 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. 255 

831. Divisions of Rhetoric. — The value of a discourse 
depends upon both the thoughts it contains and the man- 
ner in which they are expressed. There are therefore two 
divisions of Rhetoric, — Invention and Style. 

832. Invention is the art of originating thoughts and of 
arranging them so that they will be the most effective. 
Unfortunately no rule can be given that will enable every 
one to come upon thoughts. It is ajways helpful, how- 
ever, to observe closely, to read much with undivided 
attention, and to reflect assiduously. 

After we get our thoughts, a scarcely less important 
task is to arrange them, to unify them, to give them 
organic structure. The strength of an army depends of 
course upon the strength of the individual soldiers com- 
posing it, but quite as much upon the systematic order 
with which they all work toward one common end; so the 
strength of a paragraph, an essay, an oration, or a book is 
due as much to its arrangement as to the value of its 
thoughts. 

833. Style is that characteristic of a writer's mind by 
which in consciously revealing what he thinks he uncon- 
sciously reveals how he thinks. Or with reference to dis- 
course we may say, Style is that characteristic of discourse 
which indicates the individuality of the writer. 

834. Kinds of Style. — Rhetoricians have named several 
different kinds of style arising from the different peculi- 
arities of different minds. The principal ones are — 

(1) Simple, consisting of such familiar words, phrases, and sentences 
as are used in ordinary conversation. 

(2) Plain, containing little or no imagery. 

(3) Dry, lacking ornamentation. 

(4) Diffuse or Verbose, containing a superfluity of words. 

(5) Bombastic, stilted and formal — abounding in words too big for 

their ideas. 



256 COMMON SCHOOL GEAMMAR. 

(6) Flowery, Graceful, or Elegant, made up of words chosen with 

reference to their sound and rhythm. 

(7) Epigrammatic, marked by short pithy sentences. 

Notes. — (a) The style of a writer may differ with the nature of his 
subject. 

(b) The style is dependent also upon the thought and feeling of the 
writer. 

835. Qualities of Style. — The principal qualities of style 
are (1) Purity, (2) Propriety, (3) Precision, (4) Per- 
spicuity, (5) Power, (6) Elegance. 

I. Purity demands (1) the grammatical use of (2) au- 
thorized words. 

(1) For the grammatical use of words, phrases, and 
sentences, study the Grammar. 

(2) Authorized words are those accepted by (a) Pres- 
ent, (5) National, (<?) Reputable, Usage. 

Be not the first by whom the new is tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. — Pope. 

(a) No one has a right to coin a new word till he has a new idea, and 
even then he should make it with the greatest care. 

II. Propriety demands the use of words in their proper 
meanings. 

(a) While we should always know the etymology of our words, we 
must remember that it is not always a safe guide to their proper use. 

(b) In cases of doubt concerning the proper meaning of a word, con- 
sult a dictionary and a book of synonyms. 

(1) Avoid confounding words from the same root ; as, 

Observation, observance, observing; construe, construct; conscience, 
consciousness ; healthful, healthy ; negligence, neglect. 

(2) Use with care words that are similar but not iden- 
tical in meaning ; as, — 

All, every, each ; assist, help ; astonish, surprise ; allow, permit ; pleas- 
ure, delight, joy ; observe, remark. 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. 257 

III. Precision demands that the words express exactly 

the ideas, not similar ones. 

Bemark. — To use words with precision, the writer should have at 
hand (1) Bogefs Thesaurus of English Words ; (2) The Century Dic- 
tionary, Webster" 1 s, Worcester's, or the Standard; (3) CrabWs English 
Synonymes. 

IV. Power, sometimes called Energy, Strength, or Force, 
is that quality of style which makes it impressive. Power 
makes the reader feel the force of the truths expressed 
and resolve to follow them. 

There is but one general direction for acquiring power 
in composition : Have power in thought. Without 
this, no composition can be strong ; with it, no composi- 
tion can be weak. 

V. Elegance is that quality of style which makes it 
attractive or pleasing, on account of the polish of the com- 
position. It arises from (1) an active imagination and a 
well-developed emotional nature; (2) an artistic finish 
put upon the language. 

This artistic finish of language comes from (a) the 
careful selection of words and phrases with reference both 
to their sound and to their signification. Alliteration, or 
the repetition of any particular sound in different words, 
should never be used to excess, but it often adds to the 
beauty of language. Rhythm, or the easy flowing together 
of words and phrases, should be secured when beauty is 
the object, but it is not so much in order when strength 
or force of thought is to be attained ; (6) the judicious 
use of figurative language. 

836. Figurative Language. 

Definition. — A Figure of Speech is any use of language 
out of its literal signification, for the purpose of emphasizing 
the thought to be expressed. 



258 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

837. Uses of Figures. — The following uses of figures 
may be named : — 

(1) To make language richer, more attractive, and 
more copious. 

(2) To elevate and dignify the style of composition. 

(3) To afford the mind additional pleasure by present- 
ing to it two objects instead of one, thus making compari- 
son possible, not only without confusion, but even with 
increased distinctness of apprehension. 

The principal figures usually named by the rhetoricians 
are — 

838. Metonymy means a change of name, 

(1) The cause for the effect ; as, " I fear those stealthy glances." 

(2) The effect for the cause ; as, u Can gray hairs make folly venera- 
ble? " — Junius. 

(3) The container for the contained; as, "The toper loves his bottle.' 1 '' 

(4) The sign for the thing signified; as, " He carried away the palm ." 

(5) The abstract for the concrete ; as, " We wish that Labor may look 
up here and be proud in the midst of its toil. We wish that Infancy may 
learn the purpose of its creation from maternal lips ; and that weary and 
withered Age may behold and be solaced by the recollections which it 
suggests." — Daniel Webster. 

839. Synecdoche is a figure by which — 

(1) A part is put for the whole; as, "Consider the lilies, how they 
grow." Lilies is put for all vegetable life. 

(2) The whole is put for apart ; as, " Balinda smiled, and all the world 
was gay." — Pope. 

840. Metaphor and Simile are figures of comparison. 
The Metaphor suggests the comparison, and leaves it for 
the mind to make it ; the Simile is a comparison in form. 

Metaphors : (1) " Man, thou pendulum 'twixt a smile and a tear." 

(2) "In peace, thou art the gale of spring ; in war, the mountain 

storm." — Ossian. 

(3) He was a lion in the fight. 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETOKIC. 259 

(4) " Athens, the eye of Greece, 

Mother of arts and eloquence." 

(5) " The moral and political system of Hobbs was a palace of ice." 

— Sir James Macintosh. 

Similes : (1) " But pleasures are like poppies spread ; 
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ; 
Or like the snow-flake on the river, 
A moment white — then melts forever." 

(2) "As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far 

country." 

(3) " The day is done and darkness falls from the wings of night, 

As a feather is wafted downward, from an eagle in his flight." 

(a) Every metaphor may be expanded into a simile, and 
every simile may be condensed into a metaphor. 

(6) In using metaphors and similes — 

(1) Let the comparisons be suited to the subject. 

(2) Let them be drawn from objects of dignity. 

(3) Let the resemblance be apparent. 

(4) Let metaphorical and plain language not be jumbled 
together. 

(5) Two metaphors referring to the same object should 
not come too close together. 

(6) Do not strain a comparison by pursuing it too far. 

841. Allegory is a comparison extending over an entire 
division of a subject, or even over a whole composition or 
book. Fables and parables are allegories. 

842. Hyperbole is an exaggeration in which things are 
represented to be greater or less, better or worse, than 
they really are. It sometimes strengthens, but usually 
weakens, composition. 

843. Personification is the figure that represents lower 
animals and inanimate objects as having the attributes 
of human beings. There are many different degrees of 
personification. 



260 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

(1) The lower forms represent inanimate objects or 
lower animals as manifesting some human emotion, or as 
performing some voluntary action; as, — 

Angry waves ; smiling spring. 

" On the cold cheek of Death smiles and roses are blending." 

" And every wave with dimpled face 

That leaps upon the air, 

Had caught a star in its embrace, 

And held it trembling there." — Mrs. Welby. 

(2) The highest form represents inanimate objects and 
lower animals as taking part in conversation; as, " Come 
into my parlor," said the spider to the fly. " Oh, no, 
no ! " said the fly. 

Bemark. — Personification, when judiciously applied, is the source of 
much animation in composition. 

844. Apostrophe is personification in which we address 
the absent as present; the inanimate as animate; or the 
abstract as personal ; as, — 

' ' Departed spirits of the mighty dead, 
Ye who at Marathon and Luctra bled." 

"Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again." 

" O judgment ! thou art fled to brutish beasts, 
And men have lost their reason ! " 

845. Antithesis is the figure by which we suggest oppo- 
sition, but yet consistency of thought ; as, — 

" . . . As unknown, and yet well known ; as dying, and behold, we live ; 
as chastened, and not killed ; as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing ; as poor, 
yet making many rich ; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things." 

846. Interrogation is a figure according to which a sen- 
tence having the form of a question is in reality a very 
positive declaration. If the question contains a negative 
particle, it is generally intended to imply an affirmative 



INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC. 261 

answer ; but without such a particle, it suggests a nega- 
tive answer. Thus, "Will I not demand my money?" 
means, I certainly will demand my money ; and " Will I 
tolerate his slander ? " means, I certainly will not tolerate 
his slander. 

847. Exclamation is the figure by which we express 
strong emotion. It doubtless has a place in composition, 
but it is so much used by writers and speakers that it 
seems best to discourage it. It is generally indicative of 
the absence of thought, for the mind does not think well 
while in a state of intense pleasure or pain. It would be 
much better for writers and speakers, as well as for the 
public, if they would restrain their feeling and encourage 
their thought. And to those who have formed the habit 
of making exclamations simply because they can, and in 
the absence of any corresponding emotions, it ought to be 
sufficient to say that, sooner or later, they will experience 
the sad fate of the boy who hollowed, " wolf ! wolf ! " 
when there was no wolf, and thus caused his friends to 
give him no attention when the wolf did come. 

848. The Philosophy of Figures must be sought among 
the principles governing mental action. It has been sug- 
gested by some one that the Latin phrase, idem in alia, 
the same in another, expresses the basis of all fine art. 
Figurative Language is a fine art, and has for its basis the 
principle that the mind is pleased more when it sees a thing 
through another thing than when it sees only the thing itself. 
This principle depends upon the more fundamental ones 
that the thing most pleasing to the mind is its own activity, 
and the mental activity of seeing a thing is increased if the 
thing be seen through another. According to this principle, 
that mental action is agreeable, suggestiveness becomes the 
indispensable characteristic of all good composition. Never 



262 COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 

express explicitly what can be forcibly implied. This is 
almost the whole secret of composition, and the student 
cannot impress it too firmly upon his mind ; it is the key 
that will unlock all doors for our productions. We read 
as a task when the author thinks the subject all out for us, 
but we read as a pleasure when he leads us to think it out 
for ourselves. 

849. General Suggestions on Style. 

Read much, think more, and write out all your thoughts in the best 
style possible. 

" Be Homer's works your study and delight ; 
Read them by day, and meditate by night." — Pope. 

Let the same be said of a great many other works, especially those of 
Addison, Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton. Never use slang. 

"I never felt the temptation to use a foreign word without being able 
to find in English a word that expressed my meaning with more exactness 
and felicity." — Bryant. 

"Avoid redundancy, deficiency, tautology, ambiguity, obscurity, affec- 
tation, pedantry, vulgarity, silliness, falseness, absurdity, nonsense, self- 
contradiction, and any phraseology that is not the best the language 
affords." — KerVs Grammar. 

"The first rule for figures is, that they be suited to the nature of 
the subject ; neither too many, nor too gay, nor too elevated for it ; that 
we neither attempt to force the subject, by means of them, into a degree 
of elevation which is not congruous to it ; nor, on the other hand, allow 
it to sink below its proper dignity. . . . One of the greatest secrets in 
composition is to know when to be simple." — Blair. 

" Accuracy of expression is the most essential element of a good style ; 
and inaccurate writing is generally the expression of inaccurate thinking. 
. . . Style, however, although it cannot be taught, is, to a certain extent, 
the result of mental training. ... It is general culture." — Bichard 
Grant White. 

"Often it must have happened, to the mortification or joy of multi- 
tudes, that one man, out of windy nothings, has constructed an over- 
whelming appeal to the passions of his hearers, whilst another has thrown 
away the weightiest cause by his manner of treating it." 

— Thomas Be Quincey. 



INDEX. 



Abridgment, 688 to 710. 
Address, 278, 281. 
Adjective, 25, 291 to 389. 
definition of, 292. 
rule for, 293. 
predicate, 294, 373, 381. 
modifies what, 373, 375. 
follows an intransitive verb, when, 583. 
resultant or factitive, 295, 374, 381. 
other parts of speech as, 297. 
compound, 298. 
classes of, 299 to 347. 
descriptive, 300. 
common, 303. 
proper, 304. 
participial, 305. 
definitive, 301. 
articles, 307 to 309. 
pronominals, 310, 311. 
numerals, 312, 313. 
remarks on, 314 to 347. 
incomparable, 364. 
parsing of, 367 to 369. 
outline of, 370. 
syntax of, 371 to 389. 
attributive, 372. 
comparison of, 349. 
degrees, 350 to 353, 365, 366, 385, 386. 
kinds, 354. 
methods, 355 to 363. 
becomes a preposition, 378. 
becomes a noun, 379. 
error in the use of, 382 to 389. 
Adverb, 27, 554 to 587. 
definition, 554. 
classes, 558. 
as to use, 559 to 566. 
simple, 559, 561. 
conjunctive, 559 to 566. 
as to idea expressed, 567 to 574. 
modal, 570. 
interrogative, 571. 
introductory, 574. 
modifies what, 555. 
used independently, 556. 
equivalent to a sentence, 556. 
modifies a word understood, 557. 
comparison, 575, 576. 
parsing, 577. 
outline, 580. 
syntax, 581 to 587. 
Agreement : 
of pronoun with antecedent, 286 to 290. 



Agreement, of verb with subject, 540. 
of predicate noun with subject, 247 to 
255. 
Analysis, 14, 714. 
Antecedent: 

of a pronoun, 142. 
of a preposition, 594, 595. 
of an interrogative, 159. 
of a relative, 175. . 
pronoun agrees with, 286 to 290. 
Apposition, 113, 256 to 271, 281, 296. 
Attribute, 17, 726. 

may be what, 727, 728. 
Capital Letters, 54, 64. 
Case, 107 to 127. 
shown by declension, 109, 150 
nominative, 110 to 114. 
rules for, 110, 112, 113. 
constructions, 
dependent, 112. 

independent or absolute, 114, 275 to 
285. 
possessive, 115. 

rule for forming, 117. 
constructions, 116. 
remarks on, 117. 
rule for, 272. 

express the relation of how, 273, 274. 
objective, 118 to 127. (See Object.) 
rules, 118 to 121. 
constructions, 122. 
indirect, 123. 
accusative, 123. 
by enallage, 124. 

without a governing word, 242, 243. 
Clause, 39, 40, 189 to 191, 752 to 760. 
construction of, 693. 
syntax of, 712, 713. 
Comparison, 47, 51, 385. 
Complement, 17. 
objective, 33 6 . 

attributive, 33?, 247, 255, 414. 
often follows passive verb, 254. 
is what, 252, 704. 
case of, 247, 248, 706 to 710. 
nominative, 250 1 . 
objective, 250 2 . 
nominative absolute, 250 3 . 
Conjugation, 52, 535. 
Conjunction, 29, 619 to 651. 
definition, 619. 
may join what, 620. 
I not the only connective, 621. 

263 



264 



INDEX. 



Conjunction, is a relation word, 622. 
chief importance of, 627, 634. 
classes, 623 to 634. 
as to use, 624. 
co-ordinate, 625. 

may join what, 628, 642. 
subordinate, 626. 
joins what, 629, 641, 643. 
as to meaning, 630 to 634. 
introductory, 631, 632, 644. 
illative, 633. 
when omitted, 649. 
parsing of, 635 to 637. 
outline of, 638. 
syntax of, 639 to 651. 
Couuective, 776. 
not needed for what, 644. 
classes, 777. 

co-ordinate, 778. 
subordinate, 779. 

subordinate conjunction, 780 (1). 
relative pronoun, 780 (2). 
relative adverb, 780 (3). 
conjunctive adverb, 780 (4). 
conjunctive adjective, 780 (5). 
Construction : 

of sentences, 16 to 22. 
of infinitives and participles, 663 to 670, 
683. 
Copula, 17, 408 to 425. 
pure, 417, 421, 725. 
impure, 253, 416, 421, 725. 
complex, 422, 725. 

complement of. (See Complement.) 
Declension, 50, 109, 150, 164, 184. 
Diagrams, 782. 
Element, 42, 715. 

base of, 732. 
Elements, according to rank, 716. 
principal, 717. 
subject, 718. 

simple and complex, 719. 
predicate, 722. 

simple and complex, 720. 
copula, 723 to 725. 
attribute, 726. 
is what, 727, 728. 
subordinate, 721. 
according to form, 729. 
simple, 730. 
complex, 731. 
compound, 733. 
partial-compound, 734. 
according to use, 735. 
adjective, 736. 
objective, 737. 
subjective, 738. 
adverbial, 739. 
attendant, 740. 
connective, 741. 
according to base, 742. 
first class, 743. 
second class, 744. 
third class, 745. 
Enallage, 124. 
Etymology, 15. 
Exclamation, 278. 



Expansion, 689. 
Expletive, 30, 574. 
adverb, 574. 

conjunction, 631, 632, 644. 
Grammar, 3. 
English, 4. 

use or end of, 5. 
as an art and as a science, 8, 9. 
divisions of, 10, 11. 
Infinite Verbs, 657 to 687. 
infinitive, 658 to 670. 
participles, 671 to 682. 
Infinitive : 
is a verb, 658. 
has a subject, 658. 
subject in what case, 658. 
classes and properties of, 659. 
unlike other verbs, 660. 
may be modified by what, 661. 
followed by a predicate, noun or adjec 

tive, 662. 
construction of, 663, 683. 
noun, 664, 669. 
adjective, 665. 
adverb, 667. 
parsing of, 668, 681. 
used independently, 669. 
without its sign, 670. 
outline of, 683. 
syntax of, 684 to 687. 
Inflection, 49, 52. 
of verbs, 52, 534. 
of nouns and pronouns, 50. 
adjectives and adverbs, 51. 
Inscription, 280. 
Interjection, 30, 652 to 656. 
Interrogative : 

pronoun, 138, 141, 158 to 171. 
word, 
rule for, 166. 

never a connective, 167 (a). 
sentence, 36 *, 167. 
adverb, 571. 
indirect, 701. 
Interrogation, 455. 
Interpretation, 6, 42. 
It, 145 (i). 

modified by a relative clause, 177 (a). 
Language, 1. 
Noun, 23, 66. 
classes, 67, 68. 
proper, 70. 
may become common, 70 (a). 
has no meaning, 70 (6). 
common, 69. 

may become proper, 69 (a), 
has meaning, 69 (b). 
collective, 72 to 75. 
takes a singular verb, 546, 549. 
takes a plural verb, 547, 549. 
ideas expressed by, 546 to 549. 
gender of, 73, 74. 
abstract, 76. 
verbal, 77. 
class, 78. 
properties of, 79. 
person, 80 to 82. 



INDEX. 



265 



Noun, properties of, number, 45, 83 to 98. 
gender, 99 to 106. 
case, 107. (See Case.) 

parsing of, 129. 

topics for recitation on, 132. 

outline of, 206. 

syntax of, 207 to 290. 

used adjectively, 380. 
Object: 

of a transitive verb, 118, 229 to 238. 
may be what, 235. 

of a preposition, 119, 239 to 246. 
may be what, 240. 

indirect, 123, 231. 

of intransitive verb, 125, 230. 

double, 126. 

of a passive verb, 127, 233. 

resultant or factitive, 232, 296. 
Orthoepy, 10. 
Orthography, 10. 
Outline: 

of substantives, 206. 

of adjectives, 370. 

of verbs, 539, 683. 

of adverbs, 580. 

of prepositions, 600. 

of conjunctions, 638. 

of sentences, 781. 
Parsing : 

of nouns, 129. 

of adjectives, 367. 

of all the parts of speech, 128. 

of pronouns, 152, 168, 198. 

of verbs, 536. 

of adverbs, 577. 

of prepositions, 597. 

of conjunctions, 635. 

of interjections, 655. 

of infinitives and participles, 668, 681. 
Participle, 671 to 682. 

construction of, 671, 683. 

classes of, 672. 

are like infinitives, 673. 

are unlike infinitives, 674. 

may become an adjective or a noun, 675, 
678 to 680. 

subjective of, 676. 

complement of, 677. 

parsing of, 681. 

outline of, 683. 

syntax of, 684 to 687. 
Parts of Speech, 23 to 31. 

properties of, 44 to 53. 
Phrase, 37. 

classes of, 38. 

construction of, 424. 

syntax of, 712, 713. 
Pleonasm, 278, 282, 283. 
Predicate, 17. 

is what, 17, 415, 723. 
Preposition, 28, 588 to 618. 

use of, 589. 

classes of, 590. 

terms of relation : 
object, 592, 593. 
antecedent, 594, 595. 

list of, 596. 



Preposition, parsing of, 597. 
outline of, 600. 
syntax of, 601 to 618. 
Pronoun, 24, 133. 
antecedent of, 142, 143, 159, 175. 
declension of, 150, 164, 184. 
agrees with antecedent, 286 to 290. 
uses and classes of, 134 to 139. 
personal, 136, 141, 144 to 157. 
sub-classes of, 146 to 149. 
are like relative, 182. 
are unlike relative, 183. 
agrees with antecedent, 286 to 290. 
interrogative, 138, 141, 158 to 171. 
antecedent of, 159. 
case and construction of, 165, 166. 
indirect, 167, 701. 
relative or conjunctive, 140, 141, 172 to 
205. 
antecedent of, 175. 
is what, 176, 177. 
classes of, 178 to 181. 
are like personals,*182. 
are unlike personals, 183. 
uses of, 185, 192 to 196, 700. 
parsing of, 152, 168, 198. 
outline of, 206. 
syntax of, 207 to 290. 
Property, 44. 
Prosody, 10. 
Punctuation, 55 to 64. 
Relative: 
pronoun, 172. 
clause, 189. 
restrictive, 190. 
explanatory, 191. 
adverb, 565, 578, 780. 
Rules: 
of syntax, 711. 
for capital letters, 54. 
Sentence, 2, 18, 35, 748. 
interpretation of, 6, 42. 
parts of, 16, 19. 
subject, 17. 
simple, 20. 
complex, 20. 
predicate, 17. 
simple, 20. 

parts of, 17. 
complex, 20. 
is what, 17, 415, 723. 
outline of, 781. 
construction of, 16 to 22. 
classes of: 
according to use, 36 1 , 768 to 774. 
according to form or structure, 36 2 , 761 

to 767. 
according to rank, 749 to 760. 
Shall and Should, 450 to 458. 
Subject: 
of a sentence, 17. 

is what, 17. 
of a finite verb, 208 to 213. 
of an infinitive, 214 to 222. 
of a participle, 223 to 228. 
Substantive, 66 (c). 
syntax of, 207 to 290. 



266 



INDEX. 



Synopsis, 52, 535. 
Syntax, 12. 
'of substantives, 207 to 290. 

of adjectives, 371 to 389. 

of verbs, 540 to 553, 684 to 687. 

of adverbs, 581 to 587. 

of prepositions, 601 to 618. 

of conjunctions, 639 to 651. 

of interjections, 656. 

of phrases and clauses, 712, 713. 

rules of, 711. 
Synthesis, 13. 
Tense, 46. 
Thought, 

parts of a, 16. 
Verb, 26, 390. 



according to their relation to subjects, 
392. 
finite, 393. 

agrees with subject, 540. 
infinite, 394. (See Infinitive and Par- 
ticiple.) 
according to their relation to objects, 
397. 
transitive, 33 1 , 398. 
becomes intransitive, 401, 402. 
expresses what, 404. 
intransitive, 33 2 , 399, 400. 
becomes transitive, 403. 
expresses what, 404. 
compounded with preposition, 405, 

406. 
followed by reflexive pronouns, 
407. 
according to their completeness of 
predication, 408. 
attributive, 33 4 , 408, 411. 
may be expanded, 425. 
copulative, 333, 408 to 425. 
according to their form, 426 to 438. 
regular, 431. 
irregular, 432 to 438. 
according to their rank, 440. 
principle, 442. 
auxiliary, 441 to 466. 
properties, 467, 468. 



Verb, properties, voice, 469. 
active, 470. 
how changed to the passive, 474 to 

476. 
by enallage for the passive, 480, 
passive, 471. 

elements of, 477. 
used when, 478. 
belongs to what verbs, 472, 473. 
mode, 482. 
indicates what, 483. 
how many, 484. 
signs of two, 500. 
finite, 485. 

indicative, 486. 
subjunctive, 487 to 493. 
potential, 494 to 500. 
imperative, 501 to 504, 774. 
infinitive, 505. (See Infinitive and 
Participle.) 
tense, 506. 
primary, 507. 
present, 508. 

forms of, 514 to 518. 
past, 510. 

forms of, 520. 
future, 512. 
forms of, 522. 
secondary, 507, 513 (a) and (6). 
present perfect, 509. 

forms of, 519. 
past perfect, 511. 

forms of, 521. 
future perfect, 513. 
forms of, 524. 
signs of, 525 to 530. 
person and number, 531, 532. 
style, 468. 
impersonal or unipersonal, 533. 
inflection of, 534, 535. 
parsing of, 536. 
outline of, 539. 
syntax of, 540 to 553. 
principal parts of, 426 to 429, 437. 
strong and weak, 439. 
Will and Would, 450 to 466. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 244 486 6 






■H 



